Philosophy - Nozicks Entiltlement Theory Essays -

Philosophy - Nozick's Entiltlement Theory According to Nozick there are three sets of rules of justice, defining: 1. how things not previously possessed by anyone may be acquired; 2. how possession may be transferred from one person to another; and 3. what must be done to rectify injustices arising from violations of (1) and (2). A distribution is just if it has arisen in accordance with these three sets of rules. See pp. 151-2. Nozick does not try to specify in detail the rules under the above three headings ('I shall not attempt that task here', p. 153). However, he does give some further information on rules of acquisition; see p. 174ff. He follows John Locke who as Nozick interprets him held that a person has a right (1) to own what he makes, and (2) to appropriate anything not already owned, provided he leaves 'enough and as good' for others - i.e. provided his appropriation leaves them no worse off. (Nozick calls this the 'Lockean proviso'.) It is not clear how Nozick would defend (1) against his own criticisms of Locke (p. 174-5). As for (2), he points out that the proviso cannot reasonably be taken to mean that there can be no worsening of others' opportunities to appropriate; it must mean that in other respects they are no worse off. Nozick raises the question 'No worse than they would be how?' What is the baseline? In Rawls's theory the representative worst-off person must be no worse off than he would be under any other possible arrangement. Nozick rejects this, but does not define another baseline: 'This question of fixing a baseline needs more detailed investigation that we are able to give it here'; p. 177. However, 'whether or not Locke's particular theory of appropriation can be spelled out so as to handle various difficulties, I assume that any adequate theory of Justice in acquisition will contain a proviso similar to the weaker of the ones we have attributed to Locke'; p. 178. Nozick says that the proviso is violated if a person appropriates all of something necessary to life - or purchases it, or combines with the other owners of it, or finds himself the sole owner when other supplies are lost (e.g. when all the other water holes dry up). Nozick refers to the possibility of losing entitlement to something that was originally yours because of developments since, such as the drying up of other waterholes, as the 'historical shadow' of the Lockean proviso; p. 180. Comparison with Rawls's Theory Nozick classifies theories of justice as (1) either end-result or historical, and (2) either patterned or unpatterned. The entitlement theory is historical and unpatterned. It does not demand that the distribution resulting from just acquisitions, transfers and rectifications be patterned, i.e. correlated with anything else (such as moral merit, need, usefulness to society); people may be entitled to things got by chance or gift. Any distribution, irrespective of any pattern it may or may not have, is just provided it has the appropriate history, provided it did in fact come about in accordance with the rules of acquisition, transfer and rectification. Rawls's theory on the other hand, is an end-result theory. Choice of principles behind a 'veil of ignorance', must be based on calculations about what people are likely to end up with under the various possible sets of principles - there is no other way of choosing (is there?); p. 202. Therefore if any historical entitlement theory is correct, Rawls's approach is wrong. Notice that this imposes on Rawls in the job of showing that no possible version of an historical entitlement theory could be correct. He might reply that he intends to stick to his own theory until someone actually produces a correct entitlement theory; Nozick has not, because his theory is merely a sketch with many important details not worked out. Nozick points out (p. 207 ff) an analogy between his own entitlement theory and the process by which in Rawls's theory the rules of justice are arrived at. Rawls specifies an initial situation and a process of deliberation, and say that whatever rules results from this are the rules of justice; similarly Nozick specifies a process, and says that whatever distribution results is just. 'Each theory specifies starting points and processes of transformation, and each accepts whatever comes out'. But Rawls's process for generating principles cannot generate process principles, but only end-result principles. Nozick says that this is ironic. It presents a dilemma: if processes are 'so great', it is a defect that the process cannot lead

Literary Work Sample Essay Argument - Questions Students Should Ask Before Submitting

Literary Work Sample Essay Argument - Questions Students Should Ask Before SubmittingThere are several questions a student should ask before submitting a literary work sample essay argument. Below are several of the questions that students should ask to make sure they are submitting the right essay.Is the thesis statement persuasive? Does it offer an argument for your personal belief? What is the evidence supporting this argument? Also, does the essay work best as a first or second opinion argument?Your thesis statement is a personal perspective statement. If you have an article based on a philosophical belief, then you will want to show this through your writing. Just as an example, if you have a personal belief in a just world, you may feel the need to argue the just world. For example, you may want to give an example of how our civilization works or to point out the way that our beliefs are supported by our experience.Another way you can use your personal point of view to support your argument is to provide historical evidence that supports the logical conclusions of your argument. This historical evidence should not necessarily be from a university, but may come from your own research.The title of your essay is one of the most important parts of your essay. Don't use too many words, but do include enough to let the reader know what your essay is about. Remember, your essay is meant to show the reader what you believe. When your essay starts off with a title, you need to allow the reader to know what you are trying to show them.The length of your essay is going to vary, depending on how much information you will need to convey in your essay. A short, clear essay will do well, but a long essay may be a better choice for those who have more information. Generally, a good rule of thumb is to not exceed three hundred words. This is an important rule for a number of reasons.For example, if you need to include a lot of history, then it will be hard to convey that through a short essay. To solve this problem, use more words in your essay, so that the historical information can be easier to communicate.

BeethovenMozart essays

BeethovenMozart essays Ludwig Van Beethoven and W.A. Mozart are the two most important musicians of their time. Their pieces are everlasting and will live on forever. Their styles are so unique and uplifting that they could never be matched. These masterminds played in the same time period but their lives differed tremendously. There are some similarities and many differences between these two but one fact will remain: They are the central and most vital part of all music. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was one of the most prolific and important musical innovators we have ever seen. His style of music helped re-shape music and the Classical period. Mozart was born in Salzburg, Austria in 1756. Mozart was a child prodigy, claiming most success as a youth. At the age of six, Mozart could play the harpsichord and violin, improvise fugues, write minuets, and read music perfectly. At the age of eight, he wrote a symphony and at eleven, an oratorio. Then amazingly, at the age of twelve he wrote an opera. Mozart's father was Leopold Mozart, a court musician. Both Mozart and Beethoven had help from their fathers in different ways. Mozart's father helped him travel around as a young musician and with this he traveled many places and seen many well-known people and aristocrats. With Mozart's early successes came many challenges to his life. He had greater expectations from the community and from his father. Unlike, Beethoven, Mozart was a bit spoiled as a youth and because of this he would not tolerate to be treated as a servant. He completely relied on his father to help him and would not work with the archbishop. This would become a problem when Mozart did not develop enough initiative and could not make decisions on his own. Then, at age 25, Mozart broke free of Salzburg and became a freelance musician in Vienna. This is where Mozart found some success. He wrote, Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail, a German opera in 1782. Mozart e ...

Brief Summary of French History

Brief Summary of French History France is a country in Western Europe that is roughly hexagonal in shape. It has existed as a country for a little over a thousand years  and has managed to fill those with some of the most important events in European history. It is bordered by the English Channel to the north, Luxembourg and Belgium to the northeast, Germany and Switzerland to the east, Italy to the southeast, the Mediterranean to the south, southwest by Andorra and Spain and west by the Atlantic Ocean. It currently has a president at the top of government. Historical Summary of France The country of France emerged from the fragmentation of the larger Carolingian empire, when Hugh Capet became King of West Francia in 987. This kingdom consolidated power and expanded territorially, becoming known as â€Å"France†. Early wars were fought over land with English monarchs, including the Hundred Years War, then against the Habsburgs, especially after the latter inherited Spain and appeared to surround France. At one point France was closely associated with the Avignon Papacy, and experienced wars of religion after the Reformation between a twisting combination of Catholic and Protestant. French royal power reached its peak with the reign of Louis XIV (1642 – 1715), known as the Sun King, and French culture dominated Europe. Royal power collapsed fairly quickly after Louis XIV and within a century France experienced the French Revolution, which began in 1789, overthrew Louis XVI and established a republic. France now found itself fighting wars and exporting its world-changing events across Europe. The French Revolution was soon usurped by a general called Napoleon, and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars saw France first militarily dominate Europe, then be defeated. The monarchy was restored, but instability followed and a second republic, second empire and third republic followed in the nineteenth century. The early twentieth century was marked by two German invasions, in 1914 and 1940, and a return to a democratic republic after liberation. France is currently in its Fifth Republic, established in 1959 during upheavals in society.   Key People from the History of France King Louis XIV (1638 - 1715): Louis XIV succeeded to the French throne as a minor in 1642 and ruled until 1715; for many contemporaries, he was the only monarch they ever knew. Louis was the apogee of French absolutist rule and the pageantry and success of his reign earned him the epithet ‘The Sun King’. He has been criticised for letting other European nations grow in strength.Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 - 1821): A Corsican by birth, Napoleon trained in the French army and success gained him a reputation, enabling him to get close to the political leaders of late-revolutionary France. Such was Napoleon’s prestige that he was able to seize power and transform the country into an Empire with himself at its head. He was initially successful in European wars, but was beaten and twice forced into exile by a coalition of European nations.Charles de Gaulle (1890 - 1970): A military commander who argued for mobile warfare when France turned instead to the Maginot Line, de G aulle became the leader of the Free French forces during the Second World War and then Prime Minister of the liberated country. After retiring he came back to politics in the late 50s to found the French Fifth Republic and create its constitution, ruling until 1969

Assessment and Application of International Affairs Theories Essay

Assessment and Application of International Affairs Theories - Essay Example ce of international relations in the society, mainly the application of the IR theories in the aforementioned fields has immensely shaped human existence. The theoretical frameworks within the discipline assist in the explanation of the global activities/events, the identification of the most important international actors, and the different means of exertion of influence from the international platform. Moreover, the IR theories assist nations or heads of states and their foreign policy advisors during the conduction of foreign policy. There exist different IR theories that work towards the presentation of the critical events and happenings around the world. These theories assist governments in the processes of policy making, relations with other governments, and activities that occur among nations. These theories include liberalism, neo-liberalism, classical realism, constructivism, post-structuralism, Marxism, and post-modernism. These are not, however, the only IR theories. While some may be insufficient in the explanation of the aforementioned, there are theories that can be combined to offer an articulate elucidation of global events, government relations and foreign policy, and the issue of power and interaction. Among the outlined theories, liberalism, classical realism, and post structuralism are the most effective in the explanation the contemporary and past experiences in the world, and the actors that exert international influence. In addition, these theories are the most effective in offering heads of states the assistance they need in conducting foreign policy. The application of the liberalism theoretical framework of the international theory can offer an articulate explanation of the relations among governments, and major occurrences that involve decisions by the heads of states. The development of theory emanates from the society’s quest to explain the relations through the disregard of classical realism. However, emphasizes on the exploration

Business Law, Policy, and Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Law, Policy, and Ethics - Essay Example It is important to set up the site properly so as to protect the business (for example, by ensuring that your terms are accepted before transactions proceed to contract formation), and to comply with the law. Betty was willing to buy BMWS from Andrew thus why she discussed prices and various options with Andrew. Betty said wanted 12 cars top of the range and the next day Andrew telephoned Betty leaving a message on Betty's telephone answer machine offering to sell the cars for $ 38,000 each .in order for an offer to be an enforceable contract, certain basic requirements must be present. There must be an agreement based upon genuine concert of the parties supported by consideration and made for a lawful object between competent parties. (Hussain pg 114, 2002). An offer may be byword of mouth in writing or by conduct. After the discussion between Betty and Andrew the Later agreed to sell the BMWS at $ 38,000 each which was communicated to Betty. The moment a person express his acceptance of an offer the very moment the contract is concluded and does not matter whether the acceptance is byword of mouth or in witting. A contract is complete only when acceptance is actually communicated to the offer. Betty accepted to buy the $ 38,000 through an email she sent to her personal assistance (Carol) who forwarded it to Andrew. For this case the contract of the sale became binding immediately the email of acceptance from Betty was forwarded to Andrew. Carol was Betty's personal assistance and she acted as an agent to her. Her agency was created through an agency by necessity. Law may confer an authority where an agent acted by reason and genuine emergency with a view to protecting his principal's goods, which are in danger of being perished. Her action must have been performed in good faith. She must not assume the role of an agent of necessity unless she is unable to communicate with Betty to obtain fresh instructions. Carol could not have gone ahead and accepted key for the 12 BMW'S without getting fresh instructions from Betty knowing very well she had changed her mind and wanted convertible BMWs at the same price. Hence she is liable for accepting keys to the vehicles without getting further instructions from Betty. Betty is liable to pay for the BMW'S since her personal assistance (carol) intimidated to the seller that he had accepted the good vehicles by accepting the keys. Andrew has rights against Betty and he can sue Betty for the price of the vehicle since the vehicle had been passed to Betty. He can also be entitled to maintain an action for damages if the buyer refuses to accept the delivery and pay for them. Damage is the estimated loss directly and naturally resulting from the buyer's breach of contract. The damages awarded will be different between the contract and the price at the time when the goods ought to have been accepted or if no time was fixed for acceptance, then at the time of the refusal to accept. When Betty asked Andrew to collect his vehicles because she was not going to buy them, Andrew reduced $ 1,000 on cash vehicle. Considered is necessary not for making the contracts, but also for their discharge for example, an agreement to accept the smaller sum in full satisfactory of a large debt is not binding because there is no consideration and the party agreeing to it way sue for the balance. It is however, possible to discharge an existing

Aircrafts

Aircrafts Abstract: Aircrafts throughout their journeys need to be in contact with air traffic controllers. Long haul ocean crossing flights are increasing steadily every year due to growing demands. The increasing air traffic over the ocean is a serious concern for the controllers where the aircrafts are beyond the eye of the radar and ground stations that track their motion in air. The present communication between the cockpit and the controller is a high frequency radio communication where the position of the aircraft is sent to the air traffic controller through a third party radio operator who acts as an intermediary between them. Relatively the half duplex nature of the system and the use of a single frequency channel add complexity to the problem. Though the modern communications is going through an era where graphical interaction systems are being developed, the communication in an oceanic haul is still voice communication. This project focuses to improve and analyze the performance of data communications in exchanging information between the pilot and the controller in oceanic haul long routes. The controller pilot data link communications is taken for analysis in its performance in oceanic routes. Introduction: Aviation has seen rapid developments. Modern airliners are now heavily computerized monsters. They now fly higher and faster. The role of an air traffic control is massive in the field of aviation. Since they provide information about other planes approaching nearer to them and maintain spacing between planes. Pilots usually communicate with the controllers using radio aids that allow them to use normal voice communications, which is the very existing problem in the industry of aviation. Demand for air traffic has been increasing steadily in recent times. Increasing flights to the United States of America have led to the increase in air traffic over the oceans which have also intensified the job of the air controllers. With Nearly hundreds of carriers crossing the Atlantic every day, the responsibility of the air traffic control are huge, because they are the only point of reference to a pilot for navigating and knowing information about the traffic prevailing around him. The Traditional HF voice communication system has drawbacks which limits the points of communication between a pilot and an air traffic controller. Call sign confusion, interference and many more factors are hurdles to a good ground to air communications. Effective communication management is primary concern in developing co-operative multi user interaction systems. Each individual agent must know what, when and how to communicate. Effective Utilization of shared communication resources also should also be taken in to account, when there is limited resource available. This needs more attention when the demand exceeds the capacity of the system, and a priority is required This project focuses on how to improve communication between them, taking in to account various parameters that affect the transmission in a high frequency radio communication. Apart from, the attempt to replace traditional voice communication, to a text based communication using CPDLC (Controller Pilot Data Link Communication) in an oceanic haul is also developed,that would be a base to the future aviation researches . Background: The main idea is to achieve data link communication in a oceanic haul where there are no radar coverages and grond station contacts.This research was carried out in past ,over few years back.The CPDLC is a continuously on-going research project.Some of the old papers are still being researches to achieve text based information exchanges through datalink commnications.However due to the advent of growth in technology each and every day,advances in research also take a new shape than and there. This has motivated this project to evaluate the performance issues of applications in the aeronautical telecommunication networks ,which is the backbone network in aviation . Aims and Objectives : This thesis aims to : To develop a robust and reliable communication model using adhoc systems Research the various performance issues in using the ATN application CPDLC in long haul routes. The main objectives of this project is to Reduce the work load of the air traffic controllers by developing text data communications using adhoc networks Reduce workload for pilots Prevent congestion of air traffic Preventing air accidents due to misinterpretation of communications from the controller Research Methodology: The background for this thesis includes a lot of introduction and information about how ground to air communications take place.In order to review the present standards of communication,to analyze their nature and also to understand its properties ,a very intense search has been made and during this phase ,references to various technical publications ,articles expert opinions were read and references from various international organizations like ICAO and Eurocontrol were taken up to write this thesis.After careful analysis, performance analyziz was made and implementing text based communication was studied.The next part of this project will discuss all necessary things needed to understand this thesis. Literature survey : The History of communications in aviation is vast .We would be discussing only the current developments in modern technology and reviewing some of the applications developed in relations to this thesis. The standards in Aviation are monitored by certain governing bodies that are responsible for the safety and security of the air transport.The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) is the major governing body and specialized agengy of the United Nations for standard and recommended procedures in civil aviation. Aeronautical telecommunication Network: ICAO having endorsed a proposal for the future communications in aviation that uses digital datalinks to supplement voice communication to provide a good and reliable communication,has led to the development of Aeronautical telecommunication network.It is an international infrastructure that manages digital data transfer between the aircraft and the air traffic control.In fact it is a dedicated network for aviation to provide seamless ground to air as well as ground to ground communication for the aircrafts.It is designed to support the increasing air traffic due to increasing demands. Development Of ATN: Air traffic management needed enhancements due to its rapid increase in traffic .as a result a single controller cannot handle such a large amount of traffic .Hence the concept of distributed traffic handling were followed by the controllers to handle the rising amount of traffic.Efforts were also taken to automate traffic handling.When critical analysis were made regarding the automation of traffic,it became apparent that air traffic automation requires more exchange of computer to computer data interchange that included transfers between aircraft and ground computers.Apart from that automation also required infrastructures that need to be integrated with aircraft and ground stations.The real automation of this air traffic could be possible only data computers rather than being independent processors were also a networking peers with their respective ground stations.These operational objectives when combined together led to a dedicated forming of a complete network exclusively for t he field of aviation,that came to be known as the Aeronautical telecommunications network. Data communications have been deployed both(air to ground and ground to ground ) for many years not only for air traffic management but also for administrative and ground operations.Besides the aeronautical telecommunications support a wide environment where tcket sales,crew duty rotas,weather forecasts are all done.Certain standards and protocols are used. The international air transport associationhave developed a set of OSI profiles called the aeronautical OSI profile,that can be used over the ATN. Benefits of ATN over the traditional networks: The ATN has scored over the traditional voice communications with a number of advantages that would make air travel more safe and secure.the following are some of the advantages over which Are described below: ATN offers more clarity in communications.As a result retransmission rate is reduced much and interpretation errors are minimized in a long distance communication The Communication channel is made use more effieciently to transmit data between the computers rather than usage of channel in voice communication. It gives increased possibility to connect two end users without knowing their locations in a global data communication network environment. It minimizes work load for the pilots and controllers ,since a number of preformatted and short text messages are available .These standard message are very well known to the pilots.These standards are globally fixed and they mean the same everywhere in world.Hence communication becomes easy ,eliminating misinterpretation errors completey. The multitude for accommodation of various ground systems like ATSC,AOC,AAC,APC are easily done using ATN. ATN provides a unique solution to satisfy a wide range of data communications therby providing much ease and effiecient useage of the available resources. It provides a robust an reliable service to achieve higher availability and integrity that should be need for an improved operational capability. It provides for timely exchange of ATS information between ground facility improving security and productivity of the entire system The above reasons justify that the ATN has unique features and its applications are widely important in both ground to air as well us ground to ground communications The ATN environment: Operating in a global environment is always a challenge for a network .The ATN is designed to operate in extreme environment considering rough weather and other circumstances.Apart from lot of constraints,the ATN has been designed to operate under four major situations .Each one is termed an element.The first element is to capability of the network to transfer data to an aircraft without the sender knowing where actually the aircraft is, in other words hidden identity.This network mobility is essentially the powerful feature of the Aeronautical telecommncation network.The next element is to use the available multiple links installed in aircraft simultaneously.In this case the specification of the cost,link and speed preferences are advised b the applications that ATN uses when forwarding the data to an air borne system.It is these preferences that determine which link to be chosen to send and receive data over the other available links.The third element is to accommodate all availabl e low bandwidth links both grond and airlinks in this case.These links are normally used to compress the data to be sent.The last element is the standardization of the applications and all services used by the ATN so that they remain the same throughout the world and do not cause further confusion in supporting applications. The ATN Mobility: An important feature in network is that all the other end users must know the availability of the datalinks so that congestion can be reduced.Hence it is necessary in a network to let to know the end users about the links and the multiple paths that reach all the aircraft airborne.Broadcasts in a network can lead to a serious problem of flooding. Hence inorder to satisfy network mobility the ATN designers have stipulated a concept called the backbone routing technology.This effiecient technology restricts the broadcasting of information to avoid flooding but at the same time allows the ground system to send information about the availability of the links and other information to the nearest aircraft that are with ints reach. This simple figure would easily demonstrate the backbone routing implementation. The router r0 is the aircraft router that is airborne.Now when it is necessary to communicate with the router R7 .the ground router has to update all the backbone routers that the aircraft is aavailable for contact.It is also noted that only the routers in home domain are updated and all the others remain unnoticed.Hence considering this situation R1 R2 R 3 are updated and the others are left unnoticed .. Hence routers not in home domain do not know what is happening. This helps to avoid flooding . The squares in the figure represent applications used by the ATN. The CPDLC application of the ATN is discussed in the later chapters as how messages are transferred.Here application H1 when needs to communicate with aircraft airborne,has the router R8 in the home.R 8 does not know any information about the aircraft,so it forwards to the nearsest backbone router R2.R2 knows the information about the aircraft hence it sends the data to R7 through R1. Thus data traverses.In similar case, application H2 needing to communicate sends the data to R16,From there the backbone router R5 takes over.But R5 does not have any information about the aircraft hence instead of forwarding the packet to R5 it sends to R4 and then the same process takes place. Both the aircraft and the ground routers at the ground station communicate using a protocol called inter domain routing protocol which forms the basis of this inter domain routing.This is the protocol that redistributes data over the entire networ k without causing flooding and thereby enabling all the communication . Now there is yet another to note in this backbone routing. Preference based routing is necessary to allow multiple paths in a network to be available simultaneously.Some applications may require quality of service for cost and safety for performance isues.In such cases it is required to route over the other available routes.here in this considered case,aircraft router has both VHF and satellite conection .In case if the VHF is not available then a satellite connection is used to transfer data . accordingly the aircraft router R9 will take its turn to send information through the router R4 which is in ground .all entries are stored in packets by the routers they pass through.By this the packets can be examined by the other router for the shortest path to be taken to the destined aircraft it should be sent.Thus the mobility of the ATN works,adding more reliability to the communication system . ACCOMODATION OF LOW BANDWIDTH : As specifeied earlier the design of ATN is designated to accommodate the low bandwidth froundlinks to the network.Accordingly,the throughput for the groundlnks to operate in ATN is expected to operate in a low bandwidth than the available system today.Hence a compression methodology has to be used for thi purpose.The present VDL2 comunication used in aeronautical communication a channel that can transfer 32 k bits / second is shared by multiple aircraft using the carrier sense multiple access method.It is a notable feature that ATN has let also multiple compressions to occur in its routers .The rate of compression is not a fixed one.It is determined when an aircraft enters the region of an ATN router .An open system interconnection network connectionless protocol is used for this kind of purposes.It reduces hundred bytes of header information to six btes.Another technique used to compress the header is the deflate technique.A deflate algorithm uses the similar kind of mechanisms used by the ZIP used in compressing text files.It compresses both the header and the data units available to the aircraft .this way by compressing the data units,low bandwidth channels are made use by the ATN effieciently. APPLICATIONS OF THE ATN: The standardization of ATN by the international civl aviation organisatio has led to the development of four applications.These four applications are of more significance in the aviation industry since they help in navigation of aircrafts when air borne .These applications are Context Management Automatic dependent surveillance system Controler pilot data link communications Digital-Inflight information system The digital inflight information system is used to get updates from the ground sation required for the flight such as weather udates and other traffic conditions in terminal area ehich is essential during landing The controller pilot data communications is a essential development and this thesis would deal mainly with this application that exactly replaces the voice communications with the data messages to the extent it could do . The automatic dependent surveillance system is highky essential for the transmission of digital information regarding the position of the aircraft to the radar at the ground station so that automated networks and systems can maintain adequate separation of aircrafts in air.The separation of aircrafts depending up on their size and type is an important consequence in the field of Aviation where it constitutes to the safety of the planes going at higher altitudes . Context management is another directional service,where specific features could be provided to the aircraft on logging in to that particular air traffic system,associated with the network address of the server at the ground station.Thus aircraft being guided till the terminal control are where the approach controller would take care after with the secondary radars being used for assistance . These applications would surely contribute to the effective communication between the controllers and the pilots who are air borne. The functionality of The Aeronautical Telecommunication Network : The functionality of an aeronautical network seems to be little when compared to that of voice transmission networks,but it offers more robust connectivity and more integrity in communication between two end systems that are either fixed or mobile or even adhoc,taking in to consideration for transition paths and end to end delays. ATN Components: Notably ATN supports many Full dupliex communication system. These are some of the supportable forms of the communications Airline systems and ATS systems Airline and aircraft systems ATS and aircraft systems ATS systems interconnected Airline syatems inter connected together Airline systems refer to the maintainence syatems that the airlines deploy such as dispatch deliveries and others whereas aircraft systems refer to the systems actually in aircraft that help to navigate the syatems The above figure shows the typical environment of an ATN Subnetworks,Routers and the Endsyatems are the major components that constitute to the building of an ATN. Subnetworks: Subnetworks which form a part of the comuication network. A subnetwok forms the major transferring medium between the sytems in the ATN.They are infact a major component of ATN .Usually packet switching netwrks are the subnetworks used in ATN. A lot of grond as well as air borne systems are equipped with capability of supporting this features in ATN. Subnetworks can be of two types. Ground to Ground (Fixed) Air to Ground (Mobile) Ground to Ground subnetworks are usually local are networks connecte with in subsytems .It can be the local airport network connected with the ATC to share weather and other advisory informations where there is no controllers employed for certain routes. Local area networks employed with token ring ,Ethernet FDDIare nowadays used as ground subnetworks Air to Ground networks are usually wide are networks .They are used when the air craft is air borne and hence communicates with the ATC controllers.Based up on the type of Network the ATN routers adapts itself to transfer the data packets between the adjacent subnetworks. The various air to ground subnetworks include Very High Frequency Subnetwork Satellite communication Mode S subnetwork HF subnetworks The HF and MODE S subnetworks are mostly used in short range communications.Mostly short haul flights that travel in the European continents are equipped with instruments that make use of the Mode S Subnetworks.Both the communications and the automatic dependent surveillance for spacing can be achieved with Mode S which is relatively cheap when compared others. HF Networks are much more similar networks but are used in relatively average haul flights which are in continuous contact with grund stations throughout their journeys with out any oceanic travel. Satellite communication and VHF networks are the physical transfer mediums used in Long haul oceanic flights .RElativekly costlier for communication but still used in modern days. Routers: The ATN routers play a major role in routing the packets to different subnetworks thus maintaining the integrity of the network.Since the air crafts change their course during their course of flight,the path taken in a network to reach that aircraft must be determined accordingly.It is the routers that decide the traversing of packets at any stage in network.The routing is performed on the basis of class of service the packets request and the availability of the links in the network. Dynamic routing is also supported by ATN ,allowing each router to update ,due to the changing courses taken overby flight and other failures occurring unexpectedly where an alternate path is chosen.Routers operate at the third layer of the OSI layer according to a set of predefined protocols.The necessary information to route the packet are present in the header of the encapsulated packet that a router that deals with. Routers in ATN can be broadly classified in to two types . Intra domain routers (static or dynamic) Inter domain routers The intra domain routers are local routers that are used in local domains and are not to global international standards.But the inter domain routers are all set to global international standards and can handle more traffic than inter domain routers . The ATN routers differ from the Normal routers by certai features that distinguish them.those are listed. In a ATN router there is a possibility of applying specific policies that enable the supporting of mobile communication providing effiecient air to ground routing The enhanced security system that ATN adheres to protect the tampering of data. Use of compression methods to accommodate low bandwidths in air to fround links and other data networks. Termination procedures and initialization of a new route when an aircraft enters the system or leaves is a major advantage in an ATN End syatem: These system integrate the host system with the network.all the application level services are coordinated to the host by these end systems to establish communications with the peer to peer system in network. They have the capacity to communicate with another subnetworks end systes in order to provide end to end communications to the ATN applictons that handle operations. It is for this purpose they have a seven ;ayered protocol stack that hosts appropriate communication services in support to the applications of the ATN. The above figure relates the constituent elements of the aeronautical telecommunication networks with the OSI layer protocol stack structures ,that helps in establishing peer to peer commuications with end systems. ATN domains : Unlike other networks ATN has also domains that are essential for routing purposes.Each domain may have inter domain router and end systems. To make the routing process simplified the administrations of the adjacent domains may combine together to form a single domain sharing a policy and hence making it single. Administrative domains are part of ATN where they are managed by a single authority.This administrative domains are either the Civil Aviation Authority ,an Air traffic controller or an international aeronautical communication service provider (IACSP) A routing domain may have the following characteristics. All informations regarding the connectivity and quality of the service related with the internal systems are are exchanged without any restrictions. With in a domain ,selected routes(the common routes to the other systems lying outside the domains ) may be advertised by a BIS router. These routes advertised by the BIS routers to the other routers that lie outside the domains are controlled by a policy that enforced by the advertising BIS router . The figure gives an example of an ATN domain Thus the very basic essentials of a data network that is used to exchange informations was discussed. In next chapters VHF which is used as a physical transfer medium is discussed .