DNA Fingerprinting

DNA contains genetic material and information that makes up each individual trait. Every person can be identified by providing his or her genetic information based on a particular DNA strand. DNA information is an effective way of identifying persons if it is used properly. It is used to identify humans in different situations such as crime scenes, accident scenes, paternity testing, soldier remain identification, inheritance claims, missing person investigations, and convicted felon databases. Although there are different ways to identify DNA, the most common method is DNA fingerprinting. The process that was used in the lab experiment was gel electrophoresis.Before DNA fingerprinting, a different method called Blood typing was used. This method was used to identify people by taking a sample of dried blood. But this method had some disadvantages; for example, many people who receive blood by transfusionundergo changes in their blood characteristics,making difficult the blood typing; also, blood typing required an amount of body fluid that sometimes was not enough or that other times was deteriorated, making it impossible to do the blood typing. So, because of these disadvantages, DNA fingerprinting began to be used as a forensic tool.Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFPL’s) is a restriction enzyme that recognizes a specific strand of the nucleotides in DNA. This strand is different in every individual; the restriction enzymes cut the part of the DNA strand that is different, and it is used in gel electrophoresis to identify a person. For example, in crime scene investigations the DNA sample that is found is compared with the sample of suspects bythe gel electrophoresis procedure in order todetermine if the suspect committed a crime.When doing the gel electrophoresis process,different DNA strands are set in the lanes of the gel, and they are run by an electrochemical gradient from negative to positive to separate these strands. When the strands separate, they group themselves in bands. The shortest bands travel at higher speed; therefore, they are found at the end of the gel. This experiment gives the possibility to identify which bands are the same to the  one that was found in the scene, allowingreaching the objective, which is to uncover who is responsible at the crime scene.MATERIALSRestriction enzyme Colored micro-tubes contain DNA samples DNA loading dye Agarose gel Pipet Tips Electrophoresis apparatus TAE Buffer Centrifuge 120 ml of 100X blue stain. Tray 40 to 50 Celsius of tap water. IceMETHODS1. In the lab experiment DNA samples were provided in colored micro-tubes that were incubated in ice.2. 5 ulof DNA loading dye were placed in each sample tube and each tube was flipped gently with afinger. 3. A centrifuge was used to mix the DNA sample with the loading dye. 4. Theagarose gel was placed with thetop of the gel to the negative side in electrophoresis apparatus, and the electrophoresis box was filled with TAE buffer until it had completely covered the gel. 5. A pipet was used with different tips, and DNA samples were loaded into different lanes of the gel in the following order: Lane 2: DNA sizes marker 10ulLane 3: Suspect one, 20 ul Lane 4: Suspect two, 20 ul Lane 5: Suspect three, 20 ul Lane 6: Suspect four, 20 ul Lane 7: Suspect five, 20 ul6. The lid was placed in the electrophoresis chamber and plugged into the power supply. The power supply was turned on and the samples were electrophoresed at 100V for 30 minutes. 7. After that, the gel was removed carefully from the gel box and placed in a tray. 8. 120 ml of 100X fast blast of DNA stain was added. The gel was stained for two minutes with gentle movement. 9. The gel was transferred into a large tray and the gel was rinsed with warm tap water twice, with gentle shaking.The gel was leftto dry for 24 hours.Loadind dye was Centrifuge wasused Gel was placed DNA samples were placed in each to mix DNA and electrophoresis loaded in the gel micro-tube samplesloading dyeapparatusElectrophoresis Gel was placed in aGel was transferred Gel was rinse until chamberwas connected tray filled with to a clean tray the excess of stain to the power supply stain with warn tap water was removedRESULTSGel ElectrophoresisMolecular marker Crime Scene Suspect 1 Suspect 2 Suspect 3 Suspect 4 Suspect 5 Band Distance (mm) Actual size (bp) Distance (mm) Approx Size (bp) Distance (mm) Approx. Size (bp Distance (mm) Approx. Size (bp) Distance (mm) Approx. Size (bp) Distance (mm) Approx Size (bp) Distance (mm) Approx Size (bp 1 4 23,000 10 5,700 12 5,000 12 5,000 10 5,700 12 5,000 12 5,000 2 7 9,400 12 5,000 17 2,500 15 4,400 12 5,000 18 2,300 14 4,600 3 9 6,500 19 2,250 18 2,300 17 2,500 19 2,250 22 2,200 19 2,250 4 15 4,4005 18 2,3006 22 2,000DNA Bands Data TableBased on the results of the gel electrophoresis, suspect number three’s DNA sample matches with the crime scene sample, not only because they look the same, but also because o f the distance that strands travel along the gel, and the base pairs that they contain. The DNA bands of the crime scene sample were found at 10, 12, and 19 mm, instead of the bands of suspect numbers one, two, four, and five,which were found at different distances than the crime scene sample. Only the bands that correspond to suspect number three were found with similar distances to the crime scene one. Finally, the base pairs of the DNA bands of suspect number three and of the one found in the crime scene were 5,700 bp for the first set of DNA bands, 5,000bp for the second set, and 2,250 bpfor the third set. All of these results indicate that suspect number three was responsible for the crime committed in the crime scene.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONSIn conclusion, DNA fingerprinting and electrophoresis were used to determine the size of the unique strand cut by restriction enzymes that identifies the individual who was responsible in the crime scene. This lab taught how to conduct an electrophoresis experiment, and how importantthe use of this method is to solve a problem that is common in society. In this process different DNA samples were provided, and after doing the electrophoresis experiment, it was found that the suspect committed the crime. DNA profiling, whichwascalled at first DNA fingerprinting, is used for other purposes, as was mentioned earlier. One of those is paternity  testing.At this time, this method has become less difficult than what people may believe. Some laboratories provide this service, sending to their clients a kitwith everything that is needed to collect a sample of DNA.This sample, which could be a small portion of cheek tissue taken with a swab and put in a labeled envelope, is returned to the lab to be analyzed. Sometimes when this type of test is required for legal reasons, the sample to be evaluatedis taken under supervisionin order to avoid any intentional errors. DNA fingerprinting and profiling have become common processes , but also these have become very important because they help to get accurate results by using genetic information in order to solve different situations such as a crime or paternity identification.

Nonwestern Literature Essay

Modern literature does not show the extent to which literature has come. Medieval forms of literature reflected an unprecedented level of purity and originality. A study of the similarities and dissimilarities between cultures reveals the exchange of ideology that occurred many centuries ago. This gives weight to the assertion that modern forms of literature from different regions of the world once shared certain characteristics. It should not get assumed that the different forms of literature arose from the same inspiration. Rather, the varying types of literature occurred separately. However, due to improvements in technology and communication, forms of literature have become similar over time. An in-depth look at Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese literatures highlights this clearly. China and India, as countries from the East, have a winding, rich, and spectacular literary tradition. The exchange of literary accomplishments between the two nations has never ceased even until modern times. The primary groundwork for such an exchange became established through the introduction of Buddhism into China. As a result of this introduction, Indian literature began imparting nourishment to its Chinese counterpart. Thus, Chinese literature adopted plenty of influences from Indian literature. Resulting effects on Chinese literature have manifested themselves in aspects of aesthetic tendency, form, subject, rhetoric and vocabulary. In ancient times, Buddhism served as the key medium for Chinese-Indian literary exchanges. Chinese literature has become more and more influenced by Indian literature in recent times due to the assimilation of Buddhist influences. Nevertheless, the extent and nature of the literary exchange between India and China has become two-sided and complementary in recent times. There exist similarities and differences between Chinese and Indian literature. In both Chinese and Indian literature, the form of literature gets classified as primarily oral. In both Chinese and Indian literatures, extensive written forms of literature appeared in later periods compared to the emergence of oral forms of literature. In both Chinese and Indian literature, the emergence of written forms of literature arose due to the spread of literacy programs pioneered by the ruling authorities in both countries. Also, both Indian and Chinese literatures have different forms of literature contributing to the overall state of literature in the respective countries. Moreover, both Indian and Chinese literatures have experienced changes due to modern influences from the western world. On the other hand, a few differences arise between Chinese and Indian literature. Chinese literature has always gotten expression through only one language. This has remained true for the over 3000 years which the Chinese civilization has existed. On the contrary, Indian literature has experienced segmentation due to the presence of numerous languages within India. The Indian culture has officially recognized 22 languages and among these languages, 21 of them have establishes their own unique forms of literature. Indian literature has gotten influence from the various traditions that have governed over the country. Throughout its history, various family traditions have dictated the nature of ownership over the country. In turn, the varying styles of ownership have had an unmistakable effect on the types of literature. Thus, different ownership periods as demarcated by family traditions have different kinds of literature. Conversely, various dynasties throughout the whole period of its sovereign existence have ruled China. This has led to the classification of types of literature based on the particular dynasty that ruled the country at the time of the emergence of the literature. These dynasties include Zhou, Qin, Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing. During the existence of all these dynasties, various forms of literature have arisen. For instance, early woodblock and poetry became embraced during the Tang dynasty while novels gained prominence during the Ming dynasty. Chinese and Egyptian literatures share many points of reference. Both forms of literature began experiencing formative influences before the Common Era. Egyptian literature has its roots in ancient Egyptian culture. Along with Sumerian literature, ancient Egyptian literature gets classified as the one of the earliest forms of literature. In both forms of literature, the ownership periods played a key role towards the definition and classification of different types of literature. Both Chinese and Egyptian forms of literature have pioneered forms of writing, which had not existed earlier. Egyptian literature gave rise to hieroglyphics. Also, the writing of blurbs began in the 14th century Egyptian times. The writing of blurbs thus emerged as a key component of literary writing in the contemporary world. Both forms of literature have allowed the influence of different forms of literature from other countries. Egyptian literature became molded by the influx of foreign poets who flocked the town of Alexandria. These poets originated from Greece and Rome. They immigrated to Alexandria so as to utilize the library facility in the town. As a result of their extended stay in Egypt, the poets began expressing their literature in Arabic language. Inevitably, the existing literature within Egypt became fused with the literature brought by the European poets. The infiltration and influence of Indian Buddhism has played a prominent role in the shaping the Chinese literature toward adopting Indian connotations. Meditation has become a key component of Chinese literature unlike previous times. This lays testament to the fact that Indian Buddhism has left an indelible mark on Chinese literature. In Chinese literature, the initial form of literature consisted primarily of oral forms. Written forms of literature appeared during later periods of civilization. This stands in stark contrast to Egyptian literature, which has the autobiography as its oldest form. Egyptian literature got expressed in papyrus reeds. These provided the writing material on which ancient Egyptian writers would record their literary works. Also, Egypt invented calligraphy, which emerged as a key means of writing during that era. Chinese literature has received influence primarily stemming from the ruling influences within the country. The dynasties that have exercised governorship over the country have molded the types of literature within China. In contrast, Egyptian literature has experienced influences stemming from external sources. The conquering of Egypt by Muslim Arabs had a major impact on the literature in Egypt. Libraries became established and literature thrived. Papyrus reeds became replaced by cloth paper as writing surfaces. Another difference between Egyptian and Chinese literature appears when it comes to the overriding motive behind the change in literature. In Chinese literature, the changes undertaken in literature have occurred involuntarily and with the noble aim of improving the Chinese culture. On the other hand, changes in Egyptian literature have become implemented for the sole purpose of embracing Islam. The majority of Egyptian literature back in medieval times consisted of wisdom literature. This shows that the wider number of Egyptian literary works got written mainly for instruction and guidance. Such instruction recognizes the social format of life that exists in Egypt. Family values take the first place in Egypt. As a result, the forms of literature within the country give precedence to the values honored by families. However, the majority of forms of literature written in China became formulated for the purpose of entertainment. This arises due to the communal nature of the Chinese culture. Hence, the forms of literature become designed in such a way as to amuse and thereby engender a sense of togetherness within the community. ?Egyptian and Indian literatures have stunning similarities and glaring differences. The bulk of both Egyptian and Indian literatures bears literature intended for instruction. Both Egyptian and Indian cultures recognize the supremacy of family values. Thus, the literature of both countries became formulated with the intention of providing the families with instructive information regarding family life. Indian folklore and Egyptian folklore combined as key elements towards the formation of storytelling formats. Both Indian and Egyptian literatures have become molded for the purpose of accommodating religious beliefs. Literature in Egypt has evolved with the passage of time as it becomes more permissible to the Islamic faith and body of beliefs. Since Islam has gained wide acclaim as the state religion, the form of literature within Egypt has sought to reflect this truth in its form. This has endeavored to avoid hurting the religiously-trained consciences of Egyptians. In India, religion has had a major impact towards the changes that have occurred in Indian literature. India plays host to majority of the world’s most populous forms of faith. Buddhism alone has had an understated effect on the form of Indian literature. The prevalence of meditation techniques within Egyptian literature gives evidence of the extent of Buddhist influence.? However, a few differences exist between Indian and Egyptian literatures. Egyptian literature had its beginnings much earlier than Indian literature. This necessarily makes Egyptian literature richer than Indian literature. The superior quality of Egyptian literature becomes apparent through a sober consideration of the genres that have gotten invented due to Egyptian literature. Indian literature has become classified in terms of tradition due to the ideologies that have governed the country. In the contrary, Egyptian literature has always manifested their Islamic inclinations. Also, Egyptian literature received notable influence from European poets while India has risen to become the source of poetic influence to other countries like China. The history of Egyptian literature had its beginnings in ancient Egypt. The River Nile had a massive influence on the development of Egyptian literature. The town of Alexandria served as a major confluence for the emergence of literary influences. This happened because of the presence of the Library of Alexandria. This library served as hubs for poets originating from Greece and Rome, which served as key world powers in that time. The influence of these foreign poets had an unprecedented effect on Egyptian literature. Beginning from the period of the tyrannical Pharaohs until the conclusion of the Roman Empire’s rulership, ancient Egyptian literature got expresses in Egyptian language. Ancient Egyptian literature gains recognition as the world’s earliest form of literature along with other genres like Sumerian literature.? However, forms of writing in ancient Egypt did not surface until the late periods of the 4th century. This included both hieratic and hieroglyphic forms of writing. At some time before the modern era, the available literary works included epistles and letters, texts, hymns and poems, and memorials. These biographical texts got penned so as to document the professional lives of noteworthy administrative marshals. These developments notwithstanding, narrative forms of Egyptian literature became created in late periods of the 17th century BC. The formation of narrative forms sparked a media revolution in the whole of Egypt. Such a revolution occurred due to various factors. The unprecedented rise in literacy levels played a primary role for the revolution. Other factors included widespread access to written literature, rise of an intellectual class of scribes, new cultural sensibilities about individuality, unprecedented levels of literacy, and mainstream access to written materials.? The history and tradition of Indian literature primarily features verse though it also seems fundamentally oral. The earliest works became composed for the purpose of getting sung or recited. In this raw form, they became transmitted throughout a number of generations before getting written down as permanent recordings. As a result of this belated recording, the earliest records of a text appear later by several millenniums than the stated date of its initial composition. Furthermore, probably because the majority of Indian literature appears as either religious or as a reworking of common stories from the Sanskrit tales, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and the mythological writings, the authors often maintain their anonymity. Biographical components and details of the lives of the majority of the earlier Indian authors appear only in much later myths and legends. In medieval Indian literature, the earliest works in many of the languages were sectarian, designed to advance or to celebrate some unorthodox regional. Much traditional Indian literature is derived in theme and form not only from Sanskrit literature but from the Buddhist and Jain texts written in the Pali language and the other Prakrits (medieval dialects of Sanskrit). This applies to literature in the Dravidian languages of the south as well as to literature in the Indo-Iranian languages of the north. Invasions of Persians and Turks, beginning in the 14th century, resulted in the influence of Persian and Islamic culture in Urdu, although important Islamic strands can be found in other literatures as well, especially those written in Bengali, Gujarati, and Kashmiri. After 1817, entirely new literary values were essay, and literary drama (this last incorporating both classical Sanskrit and Western models)—that gradually engulfed the customary Indian verse genres. Urdu poets remained faithful to the old forms while Bengalis were imitating such English poets as Percy Bysshe Shelley or T. S. Eliot.? The history of ? Chinese literature extends for thousands of years. This started from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the mature fictional novels that arose during the Ming Dynasty. These mature fictional novels became penned for the sake of entertaining the masses of literate Chinese citizens. To various Westerners, Chinese literature remains hugely unexplored in comparison to the rich state of the Chinese culture. As a matter of fact, it is a treasure of a very considerable number of brilliant and profound works as each dynasty, in the long history of China, has passed down its legacy of magnificent events and works. For 3500 years, they have woven a variety of genres and forms encompassing poetry, essays, fiction and drama; each in its own way reflecting the social climate of its day through the high spirit of art. Chinese literature has its own values and tastes, its own reigning cultural tradition and its own critical system of theory. Chronologically, it can be divided into four main periods: classical, modern, contemporary, and the present-age literature. Classical literature refers to the earliest period and covers works from three thousand years ago to the late Qing Dynasty and is a virtually unbroken strand enduring dynastic changes. Since it was nearly always developed under the reign of centralized and unified government, it is imbued with the thoughts of a culture that embraced slavery and a feudal society. It was steeped in an enclosed environment that hardly had any real links with religion or least of all the literature of foreign cultures. ? Modern Literature refers to the period from the Opium War in 1840 to the May Fourth Movement in 1919. As the decadent reign of the Qing failed to inspire the minds of people, the literary forms had remained unchanged; till the Opium War in 1840. Then they absorbed the impact of western thoughts as foreigners poured in China and established their colonies. Novels, poetry and other works began to appear with a theme of patriotism and a revelation of social ills. Contemporary literature spanned the period from 1919 to the foundation of modern in 1949 and took on a new vigor, despite the fact that Chinese was in the throes of checkered and complicated times. This period was distinctive as it brought into being a new and revised literary language, form, content and skills allowing it to evolve into an independent and open art available to the whole of society. It attached great attention to people’s lives and a future with strong political tendencies. Influenced by the tide of the world literature, it provided wide and amiable communication between writers and readers. Present-Age literature has evolved since the establishment of the People’s Republic in 1949. During this time, there was a logjam as a consequence of the Cultural Revolution that lasted for nearly 10 years. That era is now long past and we now have a favorable turn on events and a great number of responsible writers deepen the literary forms and content. Nowadays literature prospers. As the Chinese nation is a racial mix of Han people together with 55 other ethnic groups, literature reflects this. The various ethnic groups have contributed greatly in this field.? China stands as the only country worldwide with a mono-language literature for over 3,000 years. This continuity comes from the nature of the written language itself. It is the use of characters, not letters as in Western languages, that is, most important in the Chinese language. The characters stand for things or ideas and so, unlike groups of letters, they cannot and need never get sounded. Thus Chinese could be read by people in all parts of the country in spite of gradual changes in pronunciation, the emergence of regional and local dialects, and modification of the characters. A revolution held in China marked the dynasties whereby a clan ruled over an empire. Inevitably, the significant change of Chinese society that occurred with the change of government invariably led to an alteration of literature. Thus, Chinese literature gradually became westernized and Classical language got absolved from utilization. The national government desired for women to enjoy equal privileges like men. This clamor for an equal status in society resulted in plenty of women writers and scholars. As a result, the amount of politically oriented literature doubled. Academicians got unrestrained access to literature from foreign countries while plenty of students received scholarships so as to study abroad. The New Culture Movement became disbanded and writers endeavored to blaze the trail in transforming China into a modern industrialized nation. Writers also intended to replace Confucian life-style with a modern, westernized one. Under the leadership of the national government, there existed some freedom of expression. During that period of relative freedom, lots of different views and styles of literature became widely popular. But at the moment China came under attack from Japan, the resulting Communist victory led to the curtailing of former freedoms. For instance, only literature that met the approval of the government became allowed. Egyptian literature has also experienced plenty of changes due to interaction with western cultures. The expansion of the international market has necessitated the presence of many foreigners within Egyptian soil. As a result of such mingling, Egyptian literature has become influenced by western attitudes and notions. India has become a key player in the Commonwealth of Nations movement. Inevitably, it has become the focal point for conducting business within Asia. Thus, Indian literature has adopted other cultures. Buddhism has also become part and parcel of the literature of many other countries. This highlights the exchange that has undoubtedly occurred between Indian literature and other forms of literature. REFEREENCES Allen, James P. (2000), Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.? Foster, John Lawrence (2001), Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, Austin: University of Texas Press.? K, Kripalani (1970). Modern Indian Literature.? Knight, Sabina (2012). Chinese Literature : A Very Short Introduction. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, Very Short Introductions Series.? Levy, Andre (2000). Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.? Lichtheim, Miriam (2006), Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom, with a new foreword by Hans-W. Fischer-Elfert, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.? M. , Winternitz. (1973) . A History of Indian Literature.? Mair, Victor H. (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press.? T. , W. , Clark. (1970). The Novel in India.? Quirke, S. (2004), Egyptian Literature 1800 BC, questions and readings, London: Golden House Publications.

Audi Marketing Mix Analysis

Audi Marketing Mix Analysis The Audi history begins with a man called August Horch, and in 1899, he established the Company HORCH CO. He invented his first car in 1901. But in 1909 Mr. Horch leaves his company and founded another company called Audi. â€Å"Audi † is the Latin translation for â€Å"Horch† and he took that name. In 1910, the brand â€Å"AUDI Automobilwerke GmbH† was registered. In 1931, the AUTO UNION was founded some members were DKW, HORCH, WANDERER and AUDI. Moreover, the new companies insignia to show the union of the four companies was the now familiar 4 rings, that what still used by Audi today. After the 2nd world war, there were again many cars produced, the most important for them were the DKW Munga, a four-wheel jeep with 3-cylinder 2-stroke engine. Invented in 1956 for the German military, there have produced 250 cars for testing purposes. And these cars made a trip around the world and drove more than 240 000 km also without major problems. This was the beginning of the later concept called Quattro and it had nearly 57 000 Mungaswere built until 1968. In the following years, they have many different engine- and car types were invented and produced in large amounts. There also improving, rallying and testing the first real ur-quattro with the new coupe body was build in 1980. And the power has been raised to 200hp in the testing time, and most of the other car producer did with a 2.2l engine. Audi, the core brand that the Audi has been focusing by the Audi Group in adopting its Strategy 2020 on the challenges of the future. The mission ‘We delight customers worldwide’ was explored in greater depth during 2011 where the strategy took on firmer contours. Heightened environmental awareness, growing uncertainty about the future availability of fossil fuels and increasing urbanization are the results of giving more weight to new issues that have emerged. The Mission of this company is â€Å"We delight customers worldwide†. The Audi brand’s products are famous of the brand values sportiness, modernism and sophistication. The brand with the four rings aims to suggest customer delight in many other ways and thus can lead to building technologically advanced vehicles. The mission statement which is â€Å"We delight customers worldwide† plays a main role on the path to becoming the leading first-class brand. The Audi brand has well-defined its understanding of customer delight in greater detail in the following four areas of action. That are â€Å"We define innovation†, â€Å"We create experiences† , â€Å"We live responsibility† and â€Å"We shape Audi†. In this company there have three objectives. First is to create impact and drive awareness of Audi Q5 launch. Second is demonstrating Audi’s core value proposition of â€Å"Progressive Performance†. And then last is communicate Audi’s prestige offering. Those three objectives is what Audi company execution in this few years. On the other hand, in this few year the Audi Company’s target market are predominantly males between 40-50 years old, married with a household income between $137K – $265K. And women who are a key influencer in the purchase process of the Q5.

A Company Policy for Electronic Information and Communications Essay

A Company Policy for Electronic Information and Communications - Essay Example This policy is formulated with the intention of ascertaining certain standards, to which the employees of the company should comply while operating computers and internet. The electronic communication tools are usually utilized by employees with the intention of conducting business operations effectively. The policy devised by the HR Director of the company will comprise the following contents or steps: The employees of the company using computers as well as internet services are required to utilize them with responsibility. Moreover, the employee should maintain measures to protect the information resources. The policy will provide guiding principles in order to ensure that electronic communications, as well as information technologies, are used in an appropriate manner (Safe Technology, â€Å"Workplace Template and Specimen Policy†). The objective of the policy will be to ascertain that the electronic resources of the company are used properly. Computers and internet services will be usually used for accessing as well as sharing of valuable information of the company. In this context, these technologies of the company are regarded to be an important factor for accomplishing the current as well as future activities of the company. The employees should acknowledge the rights of others in relation to their privacy as well as intellectual property. Furthermore, this policy will depict the standards as well as principles with which employees must abide by while utilizing the computers and internet services of the company (Safe Technology, â€Å"Workplace Template and Specimen Policy†). The formulated policy will be applicable to all employees of the company as well as other people who are granted the facility of accessing computers and internet services. The company possesses the right to monitor as well as investigate over all the communications which are performed through the network using the company’s computers and internet facility. Moreover, the company  can perform this monitoring or review activity with the objective to ensure that its interests remain intact and any untoward incident does not arise through means of the technological front.

Dream house Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dream house - Assignment Example A dream house has to be designed to meet the preferred color schemes, locations as well as other special features (Ransom, 8). People should understand that it is possible to buy a house that does not have all preferences, but they can later make improvements on the house to meet the specifications intended. In this case, house improvements should not just be directed towards fixing a certain problem, the owner has to know that pampering a house is a daily activity (Smith, 7), there will always be preference for certain features in the course of staying in that house. The most important thing is to ensure that the value of that particular house remains intact. It is important to note that improvements in the dream house can be expensive in some cases, this means that the person who intends to have it must do it gradually, he needs to begin with areas that are most unpleasant to those areas which are sometimes unnoticeable. A dream house should always be designed to withstand various environmental factors; it should not expose the occupants to environmental risks. However, it is important to note that some environmental hazards are unpredictable and unavoidable, for this reason, people should always understand and derive better ways to handle them when they come. Nonetheless a dream house should be stable and conducive for its inhabitants in all seasons, whether it is in hot summers or cold winters Eileen is considered one of the most important and competent designers and architect of the 20th century, at the same time; she is among the women who are termed as most influential in this field. She has risen to become very much renowned and inspired many other people including modern approaches in design and architecture as well as decors for various types of property (Eileen. 4). Eileen started up her career amidst hard circumstances that would have made anyone rubbish her off. However, she persisted with her

References Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

References - Essay Example A reference can be the difference between getting a job, and being passed over for someone more qualified. One individual that was a reference for a sales candidate I had told me that the candidate was very meticulous and showed strong abilities in the laboratory. While this was great information, the same reference could have connected the candidate’s leadership, communication and organizational skills to the position to show how strong of a candidate the individual truly was. This would have made a world of difference! If you have applied for a position and given the employer your references’ information, call them and tell them that the employer may be calling for a reference. Explain to them the type of job that you are pursuing and what skills the employer is looking for from the potential candidate. It is usually best to ask the reference to contact you once they have spoken with the reference checker so that you know where you stand in the process and gain knowledge on what type of information the reference shared about you. When you contact the reference to prepare them, make sure that you take the time to remind the reference of your skills, background and what tasks you performed for the reference while you were with them. This information is not always readily available as people tend to forget. Keep in touch with the reference. If you have not spoken with the individual for quite some time, you cannot expect to receive the excellent recommendation that you are hoping for. Continue to build upon your strong relationship with that individual by staying in touch with them regularly. Usually, it is best to call or email your references every four or five months to check in on them and keep in touch. When you do make contact, ask the reference if there is anything that you are able to do for them as well. If you can help them, it increases

Dangers of Underage Drinking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dangers of Underage Drinking - Essay Example Almost a third of college students exhibit a high-risk alcohol consumption behavior. The authors claim that these behaviors lead to the excessive alcohol consumption that not only affects the performance of the students but also drives them to alcohol dependence. Combined with environmental cues and exposure to stress, past sexual or physical abuse, college students are likely to continue drinking up to the alcohol dependency level (McGuiness & Kelly, 2012).   Exposure to stressors such as memories of abuse complicates treatment or recovery and may cause treated individuals to start drinking again. Individuals consume more alcohol if they face severe stressors. McGuiness & Kelly (2012) also note that lack of social support also serves to increase the rate of alcohol consumption. Users hope to get a time off from the difficulties they face in life though alcohol consumption.The article documents treatment options that are most viable for college students. The motivation enhancement therapy is one intervention that seeks to identify the causes of the drinking behavior, sources reasons for abstaining from alcohol consumption and the emphasis on the dangers of alcohol consumption. The prevention of relapse entails the identification of stressors such as financial stressors, relationship issues and environmental cues (McGuiness & Kelly, 2012). From this identification, there is an implementation of coping strategies as well as measures to curb the influence of the surrounding environment.

Narrative and Numbers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Narrative and Numbers - Essay Example Gabriel (2000), however, aims to make a distinction between narratives and stories. He emphatically argues that "not all narratives are stories", further stressing that "factual or objective accounts of events that aspire at objectivity rather than emotional effect must not be treated as stories." (p. 5) In the context of organizational dynamics, Gabriel's definition of storytelling singles out "workplace folklores" that provide entertainment value, requiring interpretative plot and coherence. He alludes to these stories as metaphorical windows into an organization's character, culture, and politics. His framework focuses on narratives with a temporal (time) element, a spatial setting (place), a cast of characters, a plot involving conflict and resolution, and most importantly, a certain continuity. Gabriel sees organizational stories as those that use literary narrative devices and motors to move a story forward. By molding the shape of the story and developing its structure, these devices basically manipulate the response of the reader or audience to the story. Because Gabriel believes that stories should be concerned with evoking emotional response rather than meaning, he asserts that organizational stories also focus on using narrative devices to elicit a particular response. Some of the examples used in organizational stories are: twists where the plot takes an unexpected turn; dialogue for stronger characterization; suspense or building the story to a point where the succeeding events are unknown and anticipated; effective description of tension or an atmosphere where conflicting ideas are created; and withholding key information to maximize suspense and tension. Using the voice of a narrator - which ranges from first to third voice - is also an effective tool. Other narr ative motors and devices include: time transitions (such as flashbacks or foreshadowing); a diary or journal format; and even an epistolary format, or a story written in the form of a personal letter. Similarly, Gabriel believes that tropes also play an important role in dynamic organizational storytelling. A trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play in words, expanding a conceptual framework through figurative language. The use of tropes (such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony) in stories enables the storyteller to create impressions, organize experience, and create memories. Viewed in this perspective, Gabriel's definition of "stories" excludes opinions, proto-stories, and reports. Gabriel insists that these snippets of pseudo-stories are actually non-stories because of their fragmented natures2 - that is, they do not employ the elements and devices of "stories" and are not dynamic enough to elicit a response. In contrast, Boje (2001) believes that these fragments are essential as sense-making mechanisms within organizations. Therefore, organizational narratives are not "stories", but "antenarratives".(p. 1) Boje's etymology of "antenarrative" has a dichotomous implication. First, "ante" is a story before a narrative; i.e., a "pre-narrative". A narrative is something that adds coherence to the storyline; whereas an antenarrative is a story told before the narrative. "An antenarrative is

Summarize the main points Griffin, Khan and Ickowitz make in favor of Assignment

Summarize the main points Griffin, Khan and Ickowitz make in favor of redistributive land reforms - Assignment Example In addition, the authors argue the redistribution land reform of the twentieth century developed a broader vision of land reforms in 1920’s and 1970’s. Land Reform is considered to an effective effort to overcome the unequal distribution of the allocation of the land ownership and the use of rights. Land policies have historically played a significant role to shape experience of different countries (Griffin and Khan). Griffin and Khan (reviews the previous argument and compares it with the contemporary land reform policies. In addition, the author favor redistributive land reform on the bases of segmented factor market and labor control systems. Similarly, Ray elaborates economical benefits and significances of the land reforms in the contemporary times. In the article, he draws attention of the reader towards the unequal distribution of land that has a major obstacle in the development of economy. In addition, the author highlights economic efficiency in agriculture through political, environmental and economic perspectives (Ray). Analyzing the both article, it shall be noted that both authors have highlighted importance of the redistributive land reforms. Griffin and Khan highlights the significance to the issue through discussing the historical issues (Griffin and Khan). It further incorporates arguments throughout the time to develop a broader understanding towards the land reform (Griffin and Khan). I believe the statistical and historical data and information provides a brief understanding towards the issues. Ray illustrates the importance of equal distribution of land as a source of economic growth and prosperity. Ray focuses on the effective and maximizing output of the land, as a social, environment and economical prosperity (Ray). I believe the article develops importance and significance of the issue with the economical aspect. It associates unequal distribution of land market as an important element for the

Law for business report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Law for business report - Essay Example The second question deals with the name itself. Is the name Toys4Everyone prohibited by law? If the use of the name Toys4Everyone would be considered to be an offence of offensive, or if it contained â€Å"other sensitive words,† then the name would be prohibited. (Companies Act 2006 5(1)(53)(a)(b); Companies Act 2006 5(1)(55)(1)). To qualify as a sensitive word, the word would have to be one that is regulated by Secretary of State. (Companies Act 2006 5(1)(55)(1)). Likewise, if the name is likely to give the impression that the company is associated with Her Majestys Government, the local authority or any public authority, then they would not be able to use the name, either. (Companies Act 2006 5(1)(54)(1)(2)). In this case, Toys4Everyone would not seem to fall under any of the above. It would not give the impression that the toy company is associated with government, it is not offensive and likely would not be considered to be an offence to use the name, and it is doubtful that it would be a sensitive word that would be subject to regulation by the Secretary of State. So, there does not seem to be a legal issue there. Moving on through the Companies Act, and there is a provision that states that the name chosen by the company must not be the same or too similar to another that is registered with the registrar. (Companies Act 2006 5(3)(66); Companies Act 2006 5(3)(67)). If the name is the same as another, then they cannot use the name. If the name is too similar to another, then the Secretary of State can order them to change their name. (Companies Act 2006 5(3)(67)). This is one legal challenge that may face the Board of Directors, if in fact there is another company with the name of Toys4Everyone, or if there is another company that has a very similar name as Toys4Everyone. If there is another company with a similar name on the registrar, then they

RoMay SitzeCase Study on Carl Robins Essay Example for Free

RoMay SitzeCase Study on Carl Robins Essay A recruiter’s job is to help a company or organization find new talent; they are also responsible for making sure that all new hires have completed all paperwork and maintain an ethical relationship with department heads. Introduction This case study will evaluate the performance of Carl Robins, a new campus recruiter for ABC, Inc. With only having six months experience, he failed to organize, follow-up, and reserve a room to train the 15 people he successfully recruited. The new trainees will be working for Monica Carrolls, the Operations Supervisor. Carl has been procrastinating, failing to meet the required deadline for a new hire orientation that will take place on June 15. The new employees require an orientation on company policy, manuals to learn the required policies, physicals, and drug screenings, and other issues that may arise as time whines down. On May 15, Carl was contacted by Monica and he assured her that everything was a go for that particular date and things were running as scheduled. After Memorial Day, Carl realized that the new trainees’ applications were not complete, their transcripts were not on file, and none of them had been sent for mandatory drug screening. Carl also found Joe from technology services reserved the training room for the whole month of June for computer training seminars, leaving Carl with nowhere for his orientation. Key Problems It is very clear that there is a lack of proper follow-up resulting in problems with drug screening and proper paperwork being filed, along with several issues with scheduling of assets and availability of training materials. Carl’s performance seems that he is not fully trained or inexperienced to complete the orientation of new employees with ABC, Inc. Before Carl started recruiting he did not have a plan in place for or after he met his goal of recruiting 15 new people for the company he is working  for. Being that this is his first recruitment effort, he was only focused on getting new hires in the door to show that he was capable of performing his duties as a new campus recruiter, rather than the bigger picture of what will happen after the new recruits were hired. He did not take in consideration all the elements involved with the hiring and training of the new hires; like making sure all documents were up-to-date prior to hiring. Carl has poor working ethics and there fore is incompetent in his job. He is also disorganized and doesn’t meet deadline goals. It appears that Carl was not involved or presence during the whole process of hiring new employees, allowing them to be hired without completing required documents, drug testing, and other issues that problems that are happening. Carl jeopardized the entire orientation because the lack of experience he has and the manner in which nothing was followed up or secured in a timely manner. He also was not involved with checking or ensuring the training room was reserved. It seems that he was depending on other sources to make sure the training room was available for the entire month of June. Alternatives There are a few alternatives to the dilemma Carl has put himself in. The first alternative is to postpone the orientation for another month or until Carl can secure the training room and have all the training materials in place. He will need to contact each new employee and have them come in to complete the required paperwork, hoping the potential trainees may not seek employment elsewhere, and are ready to start working in July. He will then be able to contact the drug testing center to schedule the employees’ drug screening prior to the orientation date. Carl needs to also meet with Monica Carrolls and report the discrepancies and then find a strategy for planning a successful orientation. The second alternative would be to keep the orientation as scheduled and work with other co-workers asking for any suggestions that will help, such as senior recruiters that are better equipped for the job. They will work together in finding ways to accommodate the new employees with their applications, drug testing, and anything missing from their files. All the employees in the company should work together on different projects, where at least one of the projects is one in which they are competent in and one in which they think they will be able to produce more efficiently because of their competencies or interest. Carl  needs to get a policy handbook and make copies so that every new employee has their own copy of rules and regulations so they are ready to start working by July. The team will also help with finding another location for holding the orientation; calling hotels that have conference rooms or locate restaurants that are available for June 15. With finding another location there may be a rental fee that Carl may have to come out of pocket for being that he did not follow through with reassuring the training room would be available. After the location has been found, Carl will need to contact his new trainees about the changes affecting the orientation. Proposed Solution Carl knew the deadline for new hires to enter the orientation, he should have ensured all documents were complete prior to hiring. This will ensure all records are up-to-date before the training process is to take place. Carl should check all manuals; making sure there is enough to go around; preparing himself for the orientation. Each new trainee should have been scheduled for their individual physicals and drug screenings immediately; making sure that everyone is exact on times and dates. Once the results are back, reviewed, and approved for hire, notifying the trainees. Carl had the entire month of May to schedule the training room, he should have immediately scheduled the training room. Since the training room was already booked, he should have then found another conference room within the company or rented another conference room within the area. Recommendations I recommend Carl postpone the orientation until the following month. This will give him enough time to schedule each trainees’ drug testing and make sure everyone’s paperwork is up-to-date and on the proper file. This will also give him enough time to find other replacements if there is any discrepancies with the prior trainees. It will also give him time to do the proper follow-ups if needed. Time management is the key to success and is an important aspect in being a recruiter especially when a crisis occurs; there is more procrastinating than actual work being done. I also recommend that Carl go through intensive training as well. One way ABC, Inc., can improve employee performance is by using more effective and efficient performance management programs. Carl needs to master his ability to work on his own and go through the proper channels to ensure this will never happen again.  This will give him the knowledge into how to properly train and how to complete personn el files on his own. He will also learned how to become better organized and to correctly find solutions when faced with situations that jeopardize the completion of another orientation in the near future. Carl should be fully aware of all the recruiting processes and see that all steps are followed properly. When all else fails, he should also consider sitting down with Monica Carroll to review the expectations of his position, including performances, protocol, and other duties pertaining to the recruitment requirements. I would use this situation as a learning experience and move forward, knowing that having a panic attack will not solve the issue. I would also recommend that when the training room is booked, be prepared to either find another room within the company or have another location available. Having a Plan B will show that he is prepared for the worst scenarios. In conclusion, Carl’s procrastination and lack of experience may have played a major part in the results of not having completed a successful orientation. Being responsible for every aspect of bringing new trainees on-board to making sure all follow-ups are done in a time manner and completed will become vita l for a company’s success and growth. Better employees will be attracted to ABC, Inc. if there were more experienced personnel able to handle all and any situations that may arise.

The Bookshop Company Essay Example for Free

The Bookshop Company Essay 1. Introduction 1.1 Background The company that I have chosen to do my project on is a small book distribution company called Bookshop. Bookshop is a small company based in South London and was set up in early 2002. They have a small workforce of 4 people. Each person therefore has a large and important role to the company. Each worker is always hard pushed to meet deadlines for schools and social centres demanding books. Because that are a small company they cannot afford to have large computer staff to look after al their accounts. They are limited to the time that they can spend on different tasks. Each day they deal with a round à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1000 worth of orders, but this might vary to as much as à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4500 or as little as à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½500. The director of the company has put in a large lump sum as a loan to start off the company, which she hopes will trunk into profits, which she will later recoup. 1.2 Statement of the problem I have conducted an interview with the director of the company and we encountered the following problems. * Because the bookshop is new, there are many things that could go wrong and caused bankruptcy. There is the fact that the company has no real image and cannot conduct rely on customers. Therefore they need to profit maximise. They need all staff working to their full potential. They need no wastes of time with things that can be done automatically. * Also with the small amount of money available to them they had o make do with old computers, which ran old computer programs that are DOS based. * The problem that ABC Books as a company has is that it is limited to the workforce that it ca spend on different tasks. Therefore time is a major part of what is wrong. * If there were a way that was quicker than the current way to do it then the time taken by each person would be greatly reduced and there may be a chance that each person would have more time to do other jobs. For example two people handle all the accounts. * If there were an easier way then they might only need 1 person and therefore there would be an extra person left over to do other work. Because of a shortage of time that they spend on the accounts, orders dont get delivered and because it is a small business, it needs all the orders it can get and any a late order and schools will look to other suppliers. This was picked up on by Pat Horsefield (director) when a meeting was held to discuss the problems with the system. Mrs. Horsefield feels that: * with the introduction of a computer accounts system, * a system that can process customer orders faster and more accurately, * a reduction in the amount of paper generated by the system and feels that a centralised system could improve communication between staff, then the whole company will run more smoothly and then they would make more money and she would start going in to profit As the company is new they have not got enough capital to go out and but fleets of vans and cars, they have to rely on people own cars and transport of that of a delivery company which all costs money. Because of this they need to save money on expensive large especially designed programs by large specialist companys that produce such programs. 2. Investigation 2.1 The current system The current system that the company use is a spreadsheet package that was created 17 years ago and is therefore quite basic and not easy use for all the staff that are used to more modern forms of spreadsheets. At the moment as each school places an order, it has to go through a processing system that takes a long time to fill out. Input Processing Output Forename Surname Position School Address Home Phone Mobile Books ordered Total Price Paid Payment method This is the route that the current data takes. 2.2 Constraints of the Current system The format of the current accounting system is in DOS and therefore has no GUI that is useable to a user for formats like EXCEL. The software and hardware are old and need to be replaced. * That main one is that it is not like the new accounts systems such as EXCEL and SAGE Line 100. There are many problems encountered when external people wish to view the accounts i.e. Auditors. * Another problem is that when outside people wish to review the accounts, they are totally unfamiliar with the system and are not able to use it correctly. This is mainly because of the layout and the basic look of the interface. * There is one major problem with the actual system and that is that it does not automatically perform calculations. Therefore all calculations need to be done using a calculator. This is time consuming. If there were a way that the users could just put in numbers and the computer could automatically calculate the totals and the answers the user would have more time to do other things. * Due to the lack of complexity of the system, errors are often made. 3. Requirements of the new system 3.1 General objectives The general objectives that I hope to be able to achieve are: * To create an up-to-date system that can be easily used by the staff and new staff * To be based on a modern GUI that all users will understand * To make it self explanatory so that new users will be able to pick up the methods quickly. * It will need to be able to hold the companys accounts * There will be no need for passwords to any of the data, as no strict personal data is held on the computer 3.2 Specific objectives quantitative * Customer accounts should be found in less then 20 seconds * The user should be able to locate a page by using in the click of a button. * All users should be able to use the system to do accounts. * Customer Details should be able to be printed off at the click of a button. * There should be buttons to do all reasonable jobs (print/open/add) * All pages should have links back to all the other pages, with the click of a macro and should be clearly labelled. 4. The current systems 4.1 Hardware The hardware that is available to the users is a small LAN of 4 computers and a server. All the computers have a barcode scanner for scanning in book barcode numbers and ISBNs. The computers that I have available for me to use are a set of 5 networked PCs at my house of which one has a barcode scanner. At college there is a large number of networked PCs for pupils use. They are all networked so that the users can log on to his/her area. The hardware available to me is Specifications Operating System: Microsoft Windows XP Connectors: Audio Line In (1/8 Mini) Ethernet RJ45 Twisted-Pair (XBaseT) IEEE 1394 4 pin Unpowered IEEE 1394 6 pin Powered Keyboard 6 pin mini-DIN (PS/2) Mouse 6 pin mini-DIN (PS/2) Parallel 25 pin D-shell (IEEE 1284A) USB Universal Serial Bus 2.0 Video 15 pin High-Density D-shell (VGA) Included Devices: Keyboard Mouse Barcode Scanner Chassis Style: Tower Input Devices: Keyboard Mouse Modem Speed: 1mb Cable *networked to all 5 Modem Type: Na Included Network Card: Ethernet (10/100 Mbps) normalized-Processor Speed: 2000 Video Integration: Motherboard Included Monitor: No Included Printer: No Sound Support: 3D Audio CD-ROM Read Speed: 40 X (CD,CD-R) CD Rewrite Speed: 12 X (CD,CD-R) CD Write Speed: 32 X (CD,CD-R) DVD-ROM Read Speed: 16 X (CD,CD-R) Hard Drive Capacity: 80 GB Included Drives: DVD/CD-RW Combo Floppy Drive Hard Drive Number of Hard Drives Included: 1 Bus Speed: 400 MHz Installed Memory: 512 MB Max System Memory: 1.5 kB Shared Video Memory: 32 MB Number of PCI Slots: 2 Processor Class: Intel Pentium 4 Processor Processor Speed: 2.0 GHz All 5 of the PCs that I have available to me at my house are all the same. (see above) 4.2 Software The software that the user has available is Microsoft Windows 95 professional edition with Office 95 and all relevant software for the barcode scanners and for the tele-book ordering. What I have available to use is Microsoft XP professional with Office 2000 which has excel, which Im using to create the new spreadsheet program 4.3 Users IT skills and knowledge I feel that the users ICT knowledge and skills are limited to what they can do. They are inexperienced in computer use and therefore they have not developed, because of this there will need to be a basic and informative and self-explanatory interface. I think that the interface will need to be bold and relevant to the tasks. The user manual will have basic information in using the system as well as a trouble shooting section. 1. Consideration of a possible solution There are many different packages that I could use to create an accounts program there is Sage Line100, which is widely used in large company businesses. There is also Microsoft own Excel, which is widely used, in smaller businesses. I am going to use excel to create the program because it is the most commonly available and is therefore the best choice to use. I think that it is also the easiest to use out of the two because many people use the program already and have a basic knowledge of the program already and how it works. It is also a lot clearer to see than the basic graphics of Line100. there is also the case that Excel is cheaper to buy than a copy of Sage Line100. at à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½250, Line100 is rather too expensive for a small company. I feel that with the cheaper, only à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½89.99 Excel they will have a better deal on their hands. Microsoft Excel clearly dominates the spreadsheet market. Not too long ago, Lotus 1-2-3 was considered the standard spreadsheet. Excel now holds that distinction, with an estimated 90% market share.

UN peacekeeping operations

UN peacekeeping operations â€Å"Why are the UN peacekeeping operations rarely successful? Explain using appropriate examples†. A. Introduction With the end of the Cold War, a new generation of peacekeeping operation was born. On the one hand, the deadlock situation lived before in the Security Council was overcame for a more coordinated one. On the other hand, â€Å"almost all new armed conflicts have occurred within the territories of a sovereign state† (Doyle and Sambanis, 2006, p.3). This new frame claimed for a more robust peacekeeping operations able to deal with intrastate conflicts. As the 1990s passed, UN experienced difficulties to reach it objectives, changing the initial optimism for a more pessimistic position. The complexity of intrastate conflicts -waged within the population, with weak governments and serious humanitarian problems- required multidimensional peacekeeping missions. During this decade, interventions into states in conflict were justified as humanitarian intervention. Peace operations carried on during this time leaved a negative trace -Bosnia, Somalia, Rwanda. The rarely successful of UN peace operations drove the organization to consider a serious change on the peace operation structure. The lack of consistency and determination of the mandates could not be sustained any longer. In words of the Secretary-General Kofi Annan peace operations are meant â€Å"(†¦) to intervene: to prevent conflict where we can, to put a stop to it when it has broken out, or -when neither of those things is possible- at least to contain it and prevent it from spreading† (Kofi Annan, 1999, p.4). The results of this change of lenses are the UN mandates in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL 1999-2005) and Haiti MINUSTAH (2004-Present). However, further consequences of this shift will come with the consolidation of the Brahimi Report (2000) in future missions. The aim of the present essay is to offer a critical analysis of the effectiveness of UN peace operations launched in the post-Cold War period, supporting the arguments with examples of the most controversial peace operations of 1990s -UNOSOM and UNAMIR. To get this approach, the structure of this essay is composed by three sections. This first one introduces the main characteristic of peace operations, articulating an understanding of the modus operandis of UN and the key problems. The second section comments the main difficulties that the coordination between the political sphere (UN) and the operational sphere (battlefield) has been facing in concrete situations -Somalia and Rwanda- showing the deterministic connection of events. Finally, a brief conclusion with the main findings and future expectations. B. Burying the seed of failure. ‘Peacekeeping is a complicated concept with complicated uses. Being the result of a difficult coordination between the political sphere UN, Secretary-General, Security Council and Member States and the operational sphere type of conflict, geographical area, and parties confronted-, peacekeeping operations lacked the consistency that should had to be effective. The problems begin with the absence of a definition of peacekeeping in the Charter of United Nations. There is no specific Article of Chapter that refers precisely to what peacekeeping operation entails, the criteria to establish it, or guidelines for it deployment.[1] According to the Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali (1992) peace operations concern ‘the deployment of a United Nations presence in the field, hitherto with the consent of all the parties concerned, with the aim to terminate the conflict and recover security in the region. Peacekeeping forces are meant to protect civilians, provide aid, supervised ceasefires, military demobilization and elections in order to bring back the state in conflict into peace and stability. As a result, peace operations during the 1990s were characterized for more complex affairs and much longer duration represented by multidimensional missions. Peace operations are, according to Fridley (2002), all UN missions involving military personnel, mandated by the Security Council and operating under the UN command. Four types of peacekeeping operations can be distinguished: (i) observation missions, (ii) traditional peacekeeping missions, (iii) multidimensional missions, and (iv) enforcement missions. The first three are resolutions taking under the Chapter VI, while the last one is under the Chapter VII (Fortna, 2006, p.6-7). Growing in complexity from one to four, the last two are applied more often since the end of the Cold War to end the conflict and improve the prospects for peace (Doyle and Sambanis, 2006). However, the optimism for a wider peacekeeping with more resources defined by Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali in his Agenda for peace (1992), ended with the opposite results than those expected. I argue in this essay that UN peacekeeping operations rarely succeed due to problems of coordination and determination. Let me go into the main handicaps. Political Sphere United Nations peace operations, as mentioned above, are the result of a mandate emanated from the Security Council (SC). Composed by fifteen members, five of them permanent and with veto power China, France, Russia, United Kingdom and United States (P5) -, the SC is responsible to make resolution after a recommendation for peace mission made by the Secretary-General. To approve the mandate, its required a majority of nine members. Besides the coordination needed to get the minimum votes, the resolution can be block by one of the P5. The decision of one of the members to use the veto power depends on her interest and aspirations the veto problem. This is the first setback on the way to peace. For example, in January of 1997 China used its veto power to block a peace mission to Guatemala designed to verify Guatemalas signed peace accords. The reason why China took this decision was because she did not like Guatemalas close ties to Taiwan.[2] During the process to approve a Resolution, other problems can emerge. The ‘posturing problem is the drafting of an elaborated and abstract resolution that most of the time does not contain what is needed to solve the conflict -too weak, or too pretentious This was the case of Somalia; one of the objectives of UNOSOM II was the disarmament of the militias, however, the implementation of the mandate was not feasible, specially after the withdraw of USA troops. The ‘coordination problem arrives when the great powers should define the nature of the conflict and take the most effective way to solve it; this is the crux for a appropriate design of a successful operation. However, this coordination problem is the responsible of deliberately vague mandates and a mode to get consensus between the members of the SC. Once a mandate is approved by the SC as a Resolution, the deployment of the peace forces depend on the contribution from Member States, as it is specified in the Fact Sheet of United Nations Peacekeeping. However, the authorization of the deployment does not guarantee its effectiveness.[3] As I discuss next, these inconveniences at the political level affect the operational one; a delayed resolution and an inadequate strategy have terrible consequences on the final result of the peace operation Rwanda (1993), MINURCA (1998).[4] Operational Sphere Intrastate conflicts are difficult to solve. The fundamental distinction between types of civil wars -ethnic, separatism, religion- and the parties involved make each conflict different not only the operational level, but also in the political articulation of it (Byman and Seybolt, 2003). This information should be taken into consideration for the SC to articulate a mandate that responds to the situation. But, the SC responses are not as straight forward. Crisis and its answers are shaped by the decision of those that compose the SC, who are determined by their interest and the internal situation of their country as it was mentioned before with China in 1997. However, when the conflict is considered ‘a threat to peace and the SC is able to articulate a Resolution, the intervention should be legitimized. Intervention can only take place when the state is (i) engaging in a systematic human right violations, (ii) is incapable of protecting human right violations due to the breakdown of the state authority, or (iii) when the government in power is unlawfully constituted (Semb, 2000). Justified in terms of humanitarian claims under Chapter VII (Articles 41 and 42)[5], the intervention must have the voluntary consent of the parties to the presence and activity involved in the mission[6]. (Fridley, 2002). The mandate is to relieve humanitarian crisis, as it was the case of Somalia (UN OSOM 1993) when the state breakdown. The success of the operational sphere depends, then, on the adequacy between the mandate and the conflict situation. Coordination The two spheres must be well coordinated to terminate the conflict. Different situation can be originated from this. It could be the case that the lack of interest form the member states to intervene generates the absence of intervention or a more complicated bargaining process to involve state members on the mission . As Wilson (2003) stress, â€Å"in the post-Cold War era the absence of a UN military capacity has meant that when the SC has at least been able to use its Character VII powers at an unprecedented rate, it has been forced to rely on a decentralized approach to enforcement the action and entrust operations to those actors willing to conduct them on its behalf†. Most of the time, this calculation is made in terms of cost-benefit analysis; when the conflict provides more loses than gains, the state will be reluctant to provide troops at the beginning of Rwanda crisis in 1993, most Member States where not interested to intervene. But, this is a double-sided sword. States can also see the opportunity to defend her interest as it was the case of UK in Sierra Leone in 1999 and Franc e in Rwanda. It could also be the case that the SC approves a Resolution and Member States agree to provide the troops as it was the case of USA with Bosnia (1992) and Somalia (1992) respectively. However, when the purpose of the mission is not clear, the precision on the solving-conflict situation is inexistent and incoherent, creating a disarticulates mission. This difficulty can be solved. Resolutions already deployed are reinforced by the events on the conflict area; a new Resolution can then answer the needs of the conflict. This was the case, for example, of UNOSOM I and a later UNOSOM II. However, when the Secretariat is not supportive enough, there is not real response to the conflict situation, and then, the mission failed Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali with UNAMIR. The complexity of levels and coordination between the spheres and within them are not following any patter. Although, the interdependence between decision-making -systematic setbacks that decrease the possibilities to obtain a coherent mandate- and conflict events -the necessity of a strong mandate to operate consistently- determines the character and effectiveness of the mission. Gilligan and Stedman (2003) address the vagueness of this UN internal process, â€Å"standards of the UN provide little guidance as to the actual decisions of the Security Council regarding when and where peacekeepers will be deployed†. This links the criteria problem; UN decision between Chapter VI or Chapter VII to generate the mandate that will determine the core of the peace operation. Mandates under Chapter VI lack the strength needed UNMOP (1996-2002) -, and mandates of enforcement under Chapter VII are costly for state members UNOSOM (1992-1995).[7] The inadequacy of institutional structure to respond effectively, the intermittent communication between spheres, and the vacuity of the mandates ended with the dominant tendency to fail. By the end of 1990s, UN was aware of this setback. The result to this declined support for peacekeeping operations was the Brahimi Report (2000). Composed by fifty-seven explicit recommendations and over one hundred implicit ones, it was prepared for the Millennium Summit. It claims for a relation between the magnitude of the conflict and the resourced and supported operation deployed to solve it. It also stresses (i) the need of criteria to avoid the intervention in conflicts that cannot be solved, and well-supported plans when it is required an intervention; (ii) a better understanding of the conflict, and coherence between the mandate and the real situation. (iii) This implies more flexible administrations rules capable to show in the Resolution a â€Å"greater delegation of authority to the field†; (iv) Clear and concrete mandates; (v) and, last but not least, a rapid deployment of the peace operation to be ready to operate within week six and twelve. Since then, a slightly modified typology has been applied. Mission as UN MIL (2003-Present), MINUSTAH (2004-Present), and UNAMID (2007-Present) were designed under this focus.[8] From my point of view, this repost stresses the most controversial points that generate inappropriate mandates. However, this only recommends certain actions on the operational sphere that can help to increase the effectiveness of the peace missions. It does not mention that the problem of coordination also involves part of the structure of UN. Even though it is possible to improve the articulation between the two spheres, states members can provide or move back troops from the operation if they consider it appropriate, interest will remain in the atmosphere of the SC, and the criteria for intervention will depend on the SC decision. Hence, the Brahimi Report is a valid document to improve the immediate problems, but does not mention the roots of them. C. Harvesting failures. The problematic coordination between the political level and the operational one, and also problems within the structure of peacekeeping operations, carry with it another obstacle: time. Since the beginning of the conflict till the deployment of the peace forces, the conflict has different picks of intensity. During this time, more elements are involved in the conflict (children soldiers, natural resources) and more destruction is generated (infrastructure, deaths, famine, etc). The longer it takes to deploy the peace operation, the more complex it will be to solve the magnitude of the problem. And this was the case of most UN peace operations during the 1990s. Nonetheless, the complexity and wide range of areas that the mission should cover, made the peace operations complicated to assess. A problem arrives then, the criteria to determine how much forces and commitments should be taken to solve each conflict. It is generally argued that UN â€Å"should have been done less in Somalia, and cold have done much more in Rwanda† (Frarrel, 2007). The case of MONUC (1999-Present), UN mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo, is a good example. The recommended force of 6,000 troops is too small to present a credible military deterrence, but is too large for a symbolic presence considering the extension of the territory; the lack of infrastructure represented and extra complication to an already difficult operation. In same line of a criteria problem, we also have the lack of consistency in the decision-making of UN -discussed in the former section. Generally, in peace operations, the objectives are not well defined. Mandates produced by the UNSC can be indecisive, written with abstract concepts that make its application inconsistent with the real conflict -too pretentious for the force deployed or too scarce for the actual need. Military commanders will applied the mandate as precisely as possible to solve the actual situation where they find, but this does not solve the problem. The unity of command is another setback. On the one hand, troops are provided by a number of Member States, with different training and equipment. The motley composition of troops needs to operate with determination, a good coordination and synchronization. However, such adequation in time and space is nearly idealistic. On the other hand, the states members that provided troops can end their cooperation to the mission if they consider that their troops are in serious threat cost-benefit analysis. This was the case of USA in Somalia during UNOSOM II, who showed to be really sensitive to casualties withdrawing its forces after the death of eighteen soldiers. Here I describe two of the most sounded UN peace missions that gather together all the difficulties mentioned before: UNOSOM, and UNAMIR.[9] The reason why I chose these two cases is the relation that connects the two: the passive reaction to the later one was a consequence of the negative results of the former. The first conflict represents the new challenges that peace operations faced at the beginning of the 1990s. The second one a passive attitude toward the conflict, consequence of the Bosnia (1992-1995) and Somalia (1992-1995) failures. Somalia (1992-1995) United Nations Operations in Somalia (UNOSOM I) was deployed in mid-1992 when the country reached the lower situation of her civil war and a terrible famine hit her population. The civil conflict took the country into a complete anarchic situation, where the distribution of aid failed landlords manipulated it as power. By the end of the summer of 1992, 300,000 Somalis were dead. The UNSC approved the Resolution 794 to let UNITAF, a US 37,000-strong force, to resolve the situation and establish the adequate situation for a proper distribution of aid. However, by December 1992, 95% of the population was malnourished and 70% in imminent danger of death by starvation (Western, 2002, p.115). The mandate was created to demilitarized zones to get a better distribution of the aid. In mid-1993 UNOSOM II was deployed with 28,000-strong UN force to fulfil a more ambitious mandate: the disarmament of the parties and the reconstruction of the Somalia government. However, all the efforts were truncated; the ceasefire with the warlords was broken when the paramilitary group attacked a UN patrol killing twenty-four Pakistani soldiers. UNSC Resolution 837 determined the end of the conflict; but the result was the opposite when the 3rd of October of 1994 a US helicopter was shot down; eighteen US soldier were killed. The Clinton administration withdraws her troops within months and UNOSOM II kept active till 1995 without a strong leadership and too ambitious objectives to be accomplished. [10] Even though the money invested and the strong military presence in Somalia, UNOSOM II failed in its mandate: to restore a long-term order. The difficulties faced in Somalia made the Security Council members reluctant to engage in similar conflicts, the passive reaction to the genocide in Rwanda can be explained under this focus (Semb 2000). Rwanda (1993-1994) The ethnic conflict in Rwanda ended in a terrible massacre of 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu. The precedent of such irrational situation was an instable political situation when the Hutu-moderate government introduced a multi-party democracy that ended with the exclusion of the Hutu extremists.[11] This radical faction started a terror camping, after the accidental death of the President, to exterminate the Tutsi population of the country. By April of 1993, when the genocide started, there was a UN peacekeeping force with a limited mandated deployed in Rwanda. Composed by 2,500-strong United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was designed to monitor the ceasefire between the government and the Rwandese Patriotic Front.[12] The peace operation was â€Å"understaffed, under-resourced, and unauthorized to use force to prevent crimes†.[13] The UN response the 27th of April was inadequate: to re-establish the ceasefire. The awaited Resolution 918 to expand UNAMIR to 5,500 troops to protect the population arrived the 17th of May, too late. By July the genocide was already committed. The disintegrated situation in Rwanda was denounced by the UNAMIR Force Commander, Major General Romà ©o Dollaire, in February 1993. The UN could have been able to do much more; if not to stop the genocide, at least it could have reduced the terrible consequences of it. Boutros-Ghali was unable to push an adequate resolution and the SC was blocked by USA and UK. It can be appreciate from the examples examined the difference of commitment to bring into an end the conflict. However, both situation ended in failure. Both cases have in common the weak coordination between the political and operational spheres that generated late and inconsistent mandates. Somalia demonstrates the compromise of USA to finish it, but in the end the situation was reversed and such commitment was shown not to be that strong. Rwanda is in the opposite side of the spectrum, there was no interest part as the failure of Somalia for intervention. After a decade of rarely successful operation, the ‘credibility of UN was damaged, as it was assumed by the UNSC in November 2000, Resolution 1327. D. Conclusion: awaiting for a better harvest. The main reasons why UN peacekeeping operations during 1990s rarely succeeded were problems with coordination to approve a resolution and the inconsistence of delayed responses. I argued that the intensity of the conflict aggravated through this ‘decision time determined the structure, durability, complexity, and the final balance of these peacekeeping operation. In a simple line, we can say that the objective of the UN forces were not clear by the time they went into the conflict area. This triggered a whole succession of complications such as a deficient coordination, an irregular institutional behaviour, and the lack of criteria to establish the adequate measure of forces. Missions were then no strong enough to be able to take robust actions against peace spoilers. Overall, missions tended to fail. As I argued before, the complexity of intrastate conflicts and the corresponding peace operation can get worse rather than better if (i) the expected peace operations has not a clear objectives already designed by the time of it implementation, (ii) there is no coordination between the area of the conflict and the SC to empower the strategy to wage the conflict, and (iii) if there is no suitable ‘time-reaction from the authorities to operate on the conflictive area to stop the violence. Conflicts experience different waves of violence, and the grade of destruction increases when the peace forces are not effective. So, the longer the conflict, the more elements are involved, and the more complex the peace operation should be to re-establish peace (e.g. Children soldiers, infrastructure, mechanism of corruption, etc). In other words, the longer to make a resolution and deploy the peacekeeping troops with a specific and consistent mandate, the less effective the operation will be. The structural and functional problems considered here made clear a claim for robust mandates, that is, the implementation of the appropriate force to achieve the mission mandate, to protect civilian in danger, and provide the suitable condition to deploy the mission (Yamashita, 2008). A strong justification must support this type of robust mandates. As it was the case of Sierra Leone in 1999 (UNAMSIL); the Resolution 1313 of the 4th of August of 2000 was the result of the breakdown of the Agreement. This Resolution authorized peacekeepers to deter and counter the threat of RUF responding robustly to any imminent direct use of force (Yamashita, 2008 p. 620). This new direction of peacekeeping has also its institutional consequences. Recently published, the 2008 Principles and Guidelines Material for Peacekeeping[14] outlines the interconnection between the two spheres mentioned before. In order to get that, the SC decisions are influenced by the agreement reached and the parties that compose the conflict. The result of a good coordination will produce a suitable mandate for the conflict see also the Brahimi Repost already mentioned. To sum up, peacekeeping is not risk free, this is the main reason why if UN is going to intervene in a conflict must do it with the strength and consistency required for an effective action. Once the operation is in the conflict, it must be able to complete the mission successfully fruit of the satisfactory coordination between the political sphere and the operational one being able to bring peace where it is needed.[15] The actual deployed missions generated under this new wave of peace keeping MINUSTAH (2004-Present), UMIT (2006-Present), UNAMID (2007-Present) will show if the coordination and consistency problems, that were the pulse under which peacekeeping was shaped during the 1990s, has been solved. E. Bibliography. Annan, K. â€Å"Reflections on Intervention† in Kofi Annan, The question of Intervention, New York: United Nations, 1999. A.J. Bellamy, ‘The â€Å"Next Stage† in Peace Operations Theory? International Peacekeeping, Vol. 11, no. 1, 2004, pp. 17-38. J. Boulden (ed.) Dealing with conflict in Africa. (London: Palgrave-McMillan, 2003). D. Byman T. Seybolt, ‘Humanitarian Intervention and Communal Civil Wars: Problems and Alternative Approaches, Security Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Autumn 2003), pp.33-78. Donald, ‘Neutrality, Impartiality and UN Peace-keeping at the Beginning of the 21st Century, International Peace-keeping, Vol. 9., No. 4, (2002), pp. 21-38. J. Darby R. MacGintty, (eds), Contemporary Peacemaking: Conflict, Violence and Peace Processes, (London, Palgrave, 2003) Doyle and Sambanis (2000) â€Å"International Peacebuilding: A theoretical And Quantitative Analysis† American Political Science Review, Vol. 94, No. 4 (Dec. 2000), pp. 779-801. David M. Edelstein, ‘Occupational Hazards: Why Military Occupations Succeed or Fail, International Security, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Summer 2004), pp. 49-91. Also useful for following week. T. Farrell, ‘Humanitarian Intervention and Peace Operations, in J. Baylis, J. Wirtz et al, (eds), Strategy in the Contemporary World: An introduction to strategic studies, (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 313-334. Fortna, V. (2006). Does peacekeeping work? Shaping belligerents choices after civil war. Oxford: Princeton University. Fortna, V. (2004) â€Å"Does Peacekeeping Keep Peace? International Intervention and the Duration of Peace After Civil War†. In International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Jun. 2004), pp. 269-292. Findlay, T. (2002) The use of force in UN Peace Operations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. M. Goulding, ‘The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping, International Affairs, Vol 69, No 3, 1993, pp. 451-464. J-M. Guehenno, ‘On Challenges and achievements of Reforming UN Peace Operations, International Peacekeeping, Vol 9, No. 1, Spring 2001, pp. 69-80. Guilligan and Stedman (2003) â€Å"Where do the Peacekeepers Go?† International Studies Review, Vol. 5, No. 4, Dissolving Boundaries (Dec. 2003), pp. 37-54. M. Pugh, ‘Peacekeeping and Critical Theory, International Peacekeeping, Vol. 11, no. 1, 2004, pp. 39-58. A. J. Semb, ‘The New Practice of UN-Authorized Interventions: A Slippery Slope of Forcible Interference?, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 37, No. 4, (2000), pp.469-488. The United Nations Blue Books Series, Volume VIII The United Nations and Somalia 1992-1996. (New York: Department of Public Information, 1996). J. Western, ‘Sources of Humanitarian Intervention: Beliefs, Information, and Advocacy in the U.S. Decisions on Somalia and Bosnia, International Security, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Spring 2002), pp. 112-142. G. Wilson, ‘UN Authorized Enforcement: Regional Organisations versus ‘Coalitions of the Willing, International Peace-keeping, Vol. 10, No. 2, (Summer 2003), pp. 89-106. H. Yamashita, Impartial Use of Force in United Nations Peacekeeping, International Peacekeeping, Vol 15, No 5 November 2008, pp. 615 630. [1] J.M. Guà ©henno (2002) [2] Francisco Villagran de Leon, Embassador of Guatemala to Canada (January 1997) for the New York Time, available at [3] The P5 has had the tendency to pas the resolutions, but has not been able to provide the means. [4] Edelstein (2004) [5] Semb (2000) [6] This can take place once a ceasefire agreement for the deployment of peace forces was reached. [7] Doyle and Sambanis, 2006. [8] For more detailed information, [9] Due to the complexity of the intra-state conflicts, I do not discuss the historical facts that composed the each of these operations. I will only concentrate in those events that where significant for the failure of the mission and that allow me to establish a critical analysis of the cases. [10] The United Nations and Somalia (1996), Boulden (2003) [11] Wilson (2003) [12] Boulden (2003). [13] Farrel, T. (2007) p. 320 [14] Available at [15] â€Å"Military intervention is a nasty business. It should never be the first option considered, but sometimes it is the only choice† (Beyman and Seybolt, 2003 p. 77). UN Peacekeeping Operations UN Peacekeeping Operations Peacekeeping was never has been mentioned in the UN Charter, but it has been a very effective means to respond to regional conflicts or civil wars. Peacekeeping, according to Mingst and Karns (2000), is the respond to deadlock of the Security Council to intervene civil wars due to the great veto powers. It helps the implementation of cease-firing agreement, prevents hostilities and it uses troops and civilian personals from the member states that voluntarily contributes their personals. It was first used, he adds, in the late 1940s to monitor the cease-fire agreeing in the land of Palestine and Kashmir. Since 1991, The UN has deployed many peacekeeping operations. It was launched in such countries as, Angola, El Salvador, Western Haiti, Cambodia, Rwanda, Yugoslavia etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Some of which were successful, yet some of which were not. Here, we will only examine on the UN peacekeeping operation in Rwanda (UNAMIR). We will discover whether or not the UNAMIR was successful. Firs t, we will go briefly through the root cause of the conflict inside Rwanda. Second, we will look at UNAMIR mandate to see what task it was assigned to undertake. Later, as it is well-known that this peacekeeping operation was a failure, we will examine on why it was not able to fulfill its job. Yet, we still believe that there were some positive points of this operation too. Therefore, we will also find out what are all those points are. At last, we will come to the conclusion with the outcome of UNAMIR, and answer the objective question, Was the UN peacekeeping operation in Rwanda successful or not? Root Causes of the Conflict In order to understand the root causes of civil war inside Rwanda we need to look back to colonial periods. In one of her research, Heleta (2006) illustrates that Rwanda was made up of majority Hutus and Minority Tutsis. Hutus were mainly lower class people whereas Tutsis were mainly the nobles. They spoke the same language and lived side by side, yet they sometimes intermarried. Since 1890, according to Howard, Rwanda was under the colonization of Germany, and Belgium after the end of World War I. During colonial period, minority Tutsis was in favor of both colonial masters. Rwanda gained independence in 1962 after the majority Hutus raised up against Belgium, who promoted and placed many Tutsis in many positions of the administration. They also threatened the Tutsis to leave the country. Eventually, Major General Juvenal Habyarimana, a Hutu, in 1973, created an authoritarian government after staging a coup. Bruce says, the civil war erupted when Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF), a mo vement which was mainly made of Tutsis, started the offensive in from Ugandan-Rwandan border. After a series of fighting between the RPF and the FAR (Forces Armà ©ss Rwandise) or the government military; and many negotiations resulted in cease firing that did not really last for long, the two warring parties agreed on Arusha Agreement of August 4, 1993. During the peace talks progress, Howard says, a new Hutu movement started to gained power and established their own militias to disrupt the peace talk and reconciliation. This is the Hutu extremist group that plans the genocide of the minority Tutsis. Heleta (2006) says, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Hutu radicals, who saw no other solution to the Hutu-Tutsi problem but to exterminate the entire Tutsis Population in Rwanda. The Arusha agreement was signed by both warring parties, and both parties consented the UN intervention to facilitate the implementation of the agreement. UNAMIR Mandate The UN resolution of peacekeeping operation is authorized by the Security Council to determine the size and its mandate in which any decision requires at least nine out of 15 votes, and is subject to a veto by any of the five permanent members- United States, United Kingdom, Russian Federation, France, and China. Importantly, to implement the peacekeeping operation, the member states are asked to voluntarily contribute in term of troops and civilian polices, equipment, supplies, transportation, and logistical support, and also the General Assembly is responsible for approval of budget and resources of the mission. Each and every United Nation peacekeeping operation is implemented with its own purposes and objectives. A paper that unequivocally describes the purpose and objectives is called mandate. Now we will examine what UNAMIR was originally assigned to do. From the outset, UNAMIR was created to facilitate the implementation of the Arusha agreement. The mandate stated that UNAMIR would observe the cease-fire, provide security and stability in Kigali, ensure the disarmament and create the non-military zone, assist in land mine clearance activity, monitor human right and the return of refugees, and prepare for the election. As it was implemented under the Chapter VI of the UN, the use of its force was strictly limited for only self-defense (Howard, 2008). Later, after the eruption of the mass killing, UNAMIR mandate was extended to mediate the two warring parties, protect the civilian who sought refuge with UNAMIR and provide many other humanitarian aids (Bruce, 2007). UNAMIR did receive consent from both warring parties, but why was it impossible to achieve? We will answer this question in the following section. Failure and Causes Why it is a failure? The outbreak of the genocide in the face of the presence of the UN peacekeeper clearly demonstrates that the mission is a failure. According to Howard (2008), the mission was mandated to maintain peace, security and stability inside the country, but apparently it could not accomplish its tasks. The genocide killed approximately 800,000 people in just over 100 days. The UN peacekeeper was not able to respond when they were under attack from the Hutu extremists. They proved to be militarily weak, when 10 Belgium peacekeepers were killed and no respond was given from them. Instead of giving any response, the Belgium withdrew all their force; this paved the way for the genocide. What could have been worse while UNAMIR could not even prevent the outbreak of the genocide, and UNAMIR also was voted to reduce its size for the operation? In the following section, we will examine what were the obstacles, impediments and other contributing causes that contribute to its frustrating failure. What made it a failure? The failure of United Nation Peacekeeping Operation in Rwanda was result many contributing causes. The major cause is the lack of political interests from member states, especially the United States, the most prominent member of the United Nation Security Council, to take any action in response to the crisis. Howard (2008) argues that the Security Council intentionally did not want to identify the problem, the genocide. None of the members inside the council would dare to challenge the new disinterest of the US. The reason of the disinterest, he adds, was the incident of October 5 1993, in which the US rangers died in Somalia. The encouragement of new peacekeeping operation also declined. Similarly, the Secretary-General, Boutros Ghali, was dysfunctional. The report of violence in April 1994 in Rwanda did not come into the hand of him in time. The Secretary-General was touring around Europe, and came back to New York only a week after the report had been submitted. Eventually, the Secretary-General did produce a report to the Security Council, a mere report. In the report, the Secretary-General did present but did not recommend any of the following suggestion: withdraw all the force, send in massive peace enforcement force, and withdraw majority of the force to save the peacekeepers life while maintaining international community presence inside the country. In the report to the Security Council, the Secretary-General missed one crucial point; identify the violence as genocide. If the report had mentioned about the genocide, the Security would have decisively taken action against it (Howard, 2008). If the Secretary had mention genocide in the report, the action would h ave been taken decisively under Article II and 1948 Genocide Convention. Found in same book, Vaccaro (1996) says The failure [UNAMIR] was twofold: not enough accurate analysis was available to the Council, and the information that was reported seems to have fallen on deaf ears. Some particular members such as US and Belgium endorsed the immediate withdrawal of the troops from the operation, complaining that they were under pressure of the mounting billion dollars operation debt; therefore, they need save up in order to pay off the debt. Besides, the United Kingdom opposed the suggestion of sending more forces into operation arguing that lessons learned from Somalia case proved that stronger force still would not be able to complete its mission, and would even worsen the situation there (Howard,2008). Eventually, the decision to downside the scale of operation was reach unanimously. The US disinterest and Secretary-Generals dysfunction created many problems. As the most prominent member of the council, no member was willing to challenge US. The US did not support the mission in Rwanda; therefore, this leads to many problems such as troop contribution, funding, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Howard (2008) states, The council did not recommend adequate funding nor did countries provide adequate troops, given the extensive mandate assigned to UNAMIR. Jones (2007) argues that the political uncertainty during the birth of UNAMIR illustrates its destiny. Such uncertainty would provide limited implementation of its mandate, communication to its political master to respond to the problem effectively. Not only the Secretary-General that was dysfunctional, the UN headquarter also was. A report, known as black file by Canadian Major-General Romeo A. Dallaire, was sent to the UN headquarter. The report explained the plan for genocide that was not planned by President Habyarimana but by a group of Hutu extremist. It also stated the plan to kill Belgian peacekeepers to provoke the withdrawal of them, and kill all the Tutsis. The information of this report was given by a high-level official in the government who gave this information in the return of protection from the UN. When the report come into the UN headquarter, it was put aside and ignore. General Dallaire was only told to alert Belgian, French, and US, and not to attack the weapon warehouse that he wanted to. Three months later, everything mentioned in the report became real. Ten Belgian peacekeepers were killed along with Prime Minister Agathe Uwlingiyimana. Another contributing cause to the failure is the finance and logistic problems. The deployment of the UN peacekeeper to Rwanda was conducted in such a very slow manner. Jones (2007) describes the UNAMIR as financially and logistically very weak. He explains that the force was deployed in small detachment rather than concentrated force. The deployment of such small detachment did not provide much deterrence, and proved to be weak when the ten Belgium peacekeepers were killed by the extremist Rwandan. In term of financing the operation, it received its budget installment 8 months after the budget planned went to the UN Fifth Committee; the Advisory Committee on Activities and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Its budget was endorsed only two days before the genocidal attack broke out, and ultimately received all its financial support one month after the attack had stopped. Moreover, UNAMIR never obtained critical asset such as intelligence capacity and defensive equipments (Jones, 2007). UNAMIR was only equipped with such armored personal carriers that was contributed from the UN operation in Mozambique. Many of those were not working, and this proved no sign in respond to the genocide. And when they were not equipped with advanced equipment, how could they face with the army with such sophisticated weapon? According to its mandate, UNAMIR was deployed under the Chapter VI. Therefore, the weakness of UNAMIR lays in its mandate, in which it was stated that the use of force was strictly limited to only for self-defense. Jones (2007) argues that this weakness contribute a lot to the failure. When the genocide broke out, the UN peacekeepers were not able to respond and to confront the army with such sophisticated weapons. Moreover, the collecting weapon method was not included in its mandate. Howard stressed that While the Secretary-General had recommended that the force be charged with collective weapons as a way to enhance the security, the Council did not include the provision in the mandate. After the killing of the Belgium peacekeepers, Belgium government unilaterally withdrew its own force from Rwanda to prevent further causalities of their personals. According to Jones (2007), this action is called Non-response. Belgium did not seek for further method to keep peace inside the region, but they withdrew their own force and this decreased moral of the other peacekeepers there. They did not only withdraw their force, they also persuaded the others troop contributing nations to do so as well. Obviously, they did this because they wanted to lower their embarrassment. This would make the peacekeeping force even weaker, and also made other countries reluctant to contribute their force. Even the new reinforcement of UNAMIR (later known as UNAMIR II) was approved in December 1994, with the mandate to protect civilians by granting 5,500 peacekeepers; however, there were not adequate troops and equipment to operate its mission. The reason of this is straightforward. UNAMIR II got narrow support from the Security Council with ten votes in favor and five abstentions by China, New Zealand, Brazil, Nigeria, and Pakistan. As a result of no immediate available force to operate, the reinforcement was only deployed in August 1995, by which the genocide had already reached its peak in mid-may and started become less severe (Jones, 2007). In short, UNAMIR II was a humanitarian mission rather than an effective peacekeeping operation. Positive points about UNAMIR The operation of UN in Rwanda is mostly considered as the failure because the lack of resources of UNAMIR in field and the limited political will commitment of UN member states and international community. Even though, they are recognized as the failure; UN had done several commitments to help Rwanda as well. These commitments would be counted as small success for UNs operation. First of all, In October, 1993 the Security Council, by its resolution 872 (1993), established the international force, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) to help the parties implement the agreement, monitor its implementation and support the transitional Government. In addition, UNAMIR troops managed to protect thousands of Rwandese who took shelter at sites under UNAMIR control. Howard (2008) says, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦some UNAMIR troops had begun to protect civilian against genocidal attacks, which was the morally appropriate action to take civilian protection could have been included as part of a new mandate, but it was not. Next, UNAMIR also continued its efforts to ensure security and stability, support humanitarian assistance, clear landmines and help refugees to resettle. Then, when Rwanda conducted the meeting with the United Nations Development Program in 1996, international donors pledged over $617 million towards the reconstruction of the country, United Nations agencies have continued to provide humanitarian aid and to assist in the return of the refugees. After that, On 8 November 1994, the Security Council established the International Tribunal for Rwanda for the sole purpose of prosecuting persons responsible for genocide and other Rwandan citizens responsible for genocide and other such violations committed in the territory of neighboring States, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994. And UN also support Rwandas national program for capacity building and contribute to the strengthening of local government and local development partner, as well as civil society actor. Conclusion In short, United Nations peacekeeping operation in Rwanda was a failure. Even though, it also had some positive points. Later in this section, we will access a very brief summary, personal analysis and recommendations. Summary UN peacekeeping operation in Rwanda (UNAMIR) was created to facilitate the implementation of the Arusha Agreement after many bitter fighting between the government and Rwandan Patriotic Front. It was mandated to ensure peace and stability in the capital Kigali, to create weapon-free zone around the city, to help clearing land mines, and to assist the returning of Rwandan refugees. However, it was not a satisfied and successful story. Ten Belgian peacekeepers were killed by the radical Hutus, and the number of international force was decrease. This paved the way for genocide to break out, which killed almost 800,000 minority Tutsis and moderate Hutus of Rwandan. Disinterest of the member states to deploy the mission in time and effectively, dysfunction of the Secretary-General were the two main reasons contributing to the failure. UNAMIR was also weak in term of financial, logistical, and military, while it was only allowed to use weapon in the means of self-defense. Personal Analysis and Recommendations After examining UNAMIR, we have found its weakness and we also have come out with what could be done to improve future peacekeeping operation. We will begin with our personal analysis. We have found that the most prominent cause of the UNAMIR is the US disinterest in authorizing the mission. After the US peacekeepers were killed in Somalia, the US became reluctant to deploy another mission, fearing further casualties of their soldiers. Therefore, the peacekeeping was lack of leadership. As Jones (2007) says, The political reluctance, which attended the birth of UNAMIR, shaped its destiny. Another significant factors contributing to the failure is the inadequate of the information by the Secretary-General. The report that the Secretary-General submitted to the Security Council did not mention the violence as genocide, while it was genocide in every aspects of its but its name. If the Secretary-General had mentioned about the genocide, serious action could have been taken. After giving our own analysis, here we will articulate our recommendation. What should be done to improve the effectiveness of the UN peacekeeping operation? First, UNAMIR should have been deployed under Chapter VII (peace enforcement) rather than under the Chapter VI. UNAMIR was in no position when the genocide broke out, because its use of weapon had been restricted to only self-defense. Therefore, we suggest that future peacekeeping operation to be deployed under Chapter VII (peace enforcement). If the mission is deployed with a broader use of weapon, the peacekeepers might use it to protect civilian to raid weapons warehouse, and for many other humanitarian purposes. Second, so far we have seen that only after the mission is authorized, then the troops are mobilized. UNAMIR II was authorized, but at that time it did not have immediate available troops, and it needed to wait for the member states to contribute their troops. This is a time wasting process. Therefore, we would sugge st that the peacekeeping troops to be mobilized in advance. In other word, we suggest that UN should have the reserved troops for emergency.